Xuanzang • Xiyu ji

^[ii.235-282]

Book Eleven — Twenty Three Countries

1. Sengqieluo (Simhala) • 2. Gongjiannabuluo (Konkanapura) • 3. Mohelacha (Maharashtra)
4. Balujiechepo (Bharukachheva) • 5. Molapo (Malava) • 6. Azhali (Atali) • 7. Qizha (Kachha)
8. Falapi (Valabhi) • 9. Anantuobuluo (Anandapura)
10. Sulacha (Surashtra) • 11. Quzheluo (Gurjjara)
12. Wusheyanna (Ujjayani) • 13. Zhizhituo
14. Moxishifaluobuluo (Mahesvarapura) • 15. Xindu (Sindh)
16. Maoluosanbulu (Mahesvarapura) • 17. Bofaduo (Parvata)
18. Adianpochiluo (Atyanabakela) • 19. Langjieluo (Langala) • 20. Bolasi (Persia)
21. Biduoshiluo (Pitasila) • 22. Atu (Avanda) • 23. Falana (Varana) •

1. Sengqieluo (Simhala)

^[ii.235] THE kingdom of Simhala is about 7000 li in circuit the capital is about 40 li round. The soil is rich and fertile; the climate is hot; the ground is regularly cultivated; flowers and fruits are produced in abundance. The population is numerous; their family possessions are rich in revenues. The stature of the men is small. They are black complexioned and fierce by nature. They love learning and esteem virtue. They greatly honor religious excellence, and labor in the acquisition of religious merit. ^[ii.236] This country was originally (called) Baozhu (Ratna-dvipa), because of the precious gems found there. It was occupied by evil spirits.

After this there was a king of a country of Southern India, whose daughter was affianced in a neighboring country. On a fortunate day, having paid a complimentary visit, she was returning when a lion met her on the way. The servants of the guard left her and fled from the danger. Resting alone in her car, her heart was resigned to death. At this time the Lion King, taking the woman on his back, went away and entered a lone valley in the deep mountains. He caught the deer and gathered the fruits according to their season, with which to nourish her. In the course of time she brought into the world a boy and a girl. In form and features they resembled human beings, but in disposition they were like the beast tribes.

The youth gradually grew up, and was possessed of great bodily strength, so that he could subdue the wildest ^[ii.237] beasts. When he came to man’s estate, the wisdom of his manhood also came, and he asked his mother, saying, “What am I to be called? My father is a savage beast, and my mother is a human creature. But as you differ in kind, how can you have lived together?” Then the mother related the old story, and told it to her son. Her son, replying, said, “Men and beasts are of different kinds. We ought to hasten away from this.” The mother replied, “I should have fled long ago, but I cannot help myself.” Then the son from that time forth stopped at home whenever his father, the lion, roamed forth through the mountain passes, with a view to escape the difficult (position in which they were placed). And now on a certain occasion, his father having gone forth, he proceeded to carry away his mother and sister to a village inhabited by men. The mother then said, “You ought, both of you, to keep this matter secret, and say nothing about the first transaction, for if people were to come to hear of it, they would lightly esteem us.”

On this she returned to her father’s country, but it no longer belonged to her family, and the sacrifices of her ancestors had all died out. Having taken refuge in the town, all the men addressed her, saying, “From what kingdom do you come?” She said, “I belong to this country. Having wandered through strange places, we have come back, mother and son together (to our home).”

Then the village people were moved with pity, and provided them with necessary food. And now the Lion King, returning to his place, saw no one there. Thinking with affection of his son and daughter, he was moved with rage, and went away through the mountains and valleys, and roamed through the towns and villages, roaring frightfully and destroying the people, slaughtering and mangling every living thing. The town-folk went forth, ^[ii.238] therefore, to pursue and capture him, in order to kill him. They beat the drums, sounded the conch, and with their bows and spears formed a large company; but yet they lagged behind (‘delayed’) in order to escape danger. Then the king, fearing that their courage was little, organized a band of hunters to capture the lion. He himself went with an army consisting of the four kinds of troops, amounting to tens of thousands, and beat through the woods and jungle, and traversed the mountains and valleys (in search of their prey). The lion raising his terrible roar, men and beasts flee in consternation.

Not being captured in the hunt, the king again made a proclamation, and promised that whoever captured the lion and freed the country from the affliction should be largely rewarded and his reputation widely published.

The son, hearing the royal decree, spoke to his mother and said, “We have suffered much from hunger and cold. I certainly will answer to the appeal. Perhaps we may thus get enough to support us.”

The mother said, “You ought not to think of it; for though he is a beast, yet he is still your father. What though we be wretched through want? This is no reason why you should encourage a wicked and murderous thought.”

The son said, “Men and beasts are of a different kind. What room is there for the question of propriety in such a matter as this? Why should such a thought interfere with my plan?” So seizing a knife and concealing it in his sleeve, he went forth to answer to the appeal. On this a thousand people and ten thousand horsemen assembled in crowds (like the clouds and vapor). The lion lay hid in the forest, and no one dared to approach him. On this the son forthwith advanced to him, and the father, tame and crouching, forgot in his sense of loving affection all ^[ii.239] his previous hate. Then he (the son) plunged the knife into the middle of his bowels, but he still exhibited the same love and tenderness, and was free from all anger or revengeful feeling even when his belly was ripped up, and he died in agony.

The king then said, “Who is this man who has done such a wonderful deed?” Allured by promises of reward on the one hand, and alarmed by fear of punishment on the other, if he kept back anything, he at last revealed the whole from beginning to end, and told the touching story without reserve. The king said, “Thou wretch! If thou would kill thy father, how much more those not related to thee! Your deserts indeed are great for delivering my people from the savage cruelty of a beast whose (passions) it is difficult to assuage, and whose hateful tempers are easily aroused; but to kill your own father, this is a rebellious (‘unnatural’) disposition. I will reward your good deed largely, but you shall be banished from the country as the punishment of your crime. Thus the laws will “not be infringed and the king’s words not violated.” On this he prepared two large ships (‘boats’) in which he stored much provision (cured rice or other grain). The mother he detained in the kingdom, and provided her with all necessary things as the reward of the service done. The son and daughter each were placed in a separate boat, and abandoned to the chance of the waves and the wind. The boat in which the son was embarked, driven over the sea, came to this Ratna-dvipa. Seeing it abounded in precious gems, he took up his abode here.

Afterwards merchants seeking for gems frequently came to the island. He then killed the merchant chief and detained his children. Thus he extended his race. His sons and grandsons becoming numerous, they pro ^[ii.240]ceeded to elect a king and ministers and to divide the people into classes. They then built a city and erected towns, and seized on the territory by force; and because their original founder got his name by catching a lion, they called the country (after his name) Simhala. The boat in which the girl was embarked was driven over the sea until it reached Persia (Bolasi), the abode of the western demons, who by intercourse with her engendered a clan of women-children, and therefore the country is now called the Country of the Western Women—this is the reason.

The men of the Simha kingdom are small in stature and black-complexioned; they have square chins and high foreheads; they are naturally fierce and impetuous, and cruelly savage without hesitation. This is from their inherited disposition as descended from a beast; but another version of the story is that they are very brave and courageous.

The records of the Buddhist religion say: In the middle of a great Iron City of this Ratna-dvipa (Baozhu) was the dwelling of the rakshasi women (luocha). On the towers of this city they erected two high flagstaffs with lucky or unlucky signals, which they exhibited according to circumstances (to allure mariners), when merchants came to the island (Ratna-dvipa). Then they changed themselves into beautiful women, holding flowers and scents, and with the sound of music they went forth to meet them, and caressingly invited them ^[ii.241] to enter Iron City; then having shared with them all sorts of pleasure, they shut them up in an iron prison, and devoured them at their leisure.

At this time there was a great merchant of Jambudvipa called Simha (Sengqie) whose son was called Simhala (Sengqieluo). His father having grown old, he was deputed to take charge of the house (‘family’); he embarked, therefore, with 500 merchants to seek for precious stones; driven by the winds and waves, they came to Ratna- dvipa.

Then the rakshasis, displaying the lucky signal, began to wave it, and went forth with scents and flowers and the sound of music to meet them, and invite them to enter Iron City. The prince of the merchants accordingly, matched with the queen of the rakshasis, gave himself up to pleasure and indulgence. The other merchants also selected each one a companion, and so, in the course of time, a son was born to each. After this, the rakshasis, feeling tired of their old partners’ love, (were preparing to) shut them up in the iron prison and to seek new companions among other merchants. At this time, Simhala, moved in the night by an evil dream, and impressed with a sense of its bad augury, sought some mode of escape, and coming to the iron stronghold, he heard the sounds of piteous cries within. Forthwith he climbed a great tree, and questioned them, saying, “Who are you thus bound, and why these miserable cries?” They replied, “Do you not know then that the women who occupy this place are all rakshasis? In former days, they allured us to enter the city with festive sounds of music, but when you arrived, they shut us up in this prison, and are gradually devouring our flesh. Now we are half eaten up; your turn too will soon come.”

^[ii.242] Then Simhala (Sengqieluo) said, “By what device then may we escape this danger?” They replied, and said, “We hear that on the sea-board there is a divine horse, and whoever prays with supreme faith he will safely carry him across.”

Simhala having heard this, secretly told the merchants his companions to assemble altogether on the sea-shore and there to offer up fervent prayers for deliverance. Then the divine horse came and addressed the men and said, “Each one of you grasp my hairy coat and look not behind then will I deliver you and transport you across the sea out of danger’s way. I will conduct you back to Jambudvipa, to your happy homes (‘country’).”

Then the merchants, obeying his directions, did each one implicitly as commanded. They seized the hairy coat (of the divine horse). Then he mounted aloft, traversed through the clouds, and passed the sea to the other side.

Then the rakshasis, perceiving all at once their husbands had escaped, spoke one to another in surprise, and asked where they had gone. Then, taking each her child, they traversed to and fro the air. Perceiving, then, that the merchants had just left the shore, they issued a general order to unite in their flight to follow them. Not an hour had passed but they encountered them, and then, with mingled joy and tears, they came, and for a time restraining their grief they said, “We thought ourselves happy when first we met you, and made it our care to provide you homes, and for long have loved and cherished you, but now you are departing and deserting your wives and children, leaving them desolate. Who can bear the terrible grief that afflicts us! We pray you stay your departure and turn again with us to the city.”

^[ii.243] But the minds of the merchants were as yet unwilling to consent. The rakshasis, seeing their words had no effect, had recourse to seductive blandishments, and by their conduct excited the feelings of the merchants; in consequence of which, being unable to suppress their tender emotions, their steadfastness forsook them, and, hesitating to go on, they paused, and at length returned in company with the rakshasis. The women, saluting and congratulating each other, closely holding to the men, went back.

Now the wisdom of Simhala was deep, and his firm purpose remained unchanged, and so he succeeded in traversing the ocean, and thus escaped the danger. Then the queen of the rakshasis returned alone to Iron City; on which the other women addressing her said, “You are without wisdom or astuteness, and so you are abandoned by your husband; since you have so little cleverness or capacity you cannot dwell here.” On this the rakshasi queen, taking her child, hastened her flight after Simhala. She indulged before him in excessive blandishments and entreated him tenderly to return. But Simhala repeated with his mouth some spiritual charms, and with his hand brandishing a sword, he said, “You are a rakshasi and I am a man, men and demons belong to different classes, there can be no union between such; if you trouble me further with your entreaties I will take your life.”

The rakshasi woman, knowing the uselessness of further parley, darted through the air and disappeared. Coming to Simhala’s house, she addressed his father Simha, and said, “I am a king’s daughter belonging to such and such a country. Simhala took me as his wife, and I have borne him a son. Having collected gems and goods, we were returning to my lord’s country when the ship, driven by the winds and the sea, was lost, and only I, my child, and Simhala were saved. After crossing rivers and mountains with great difficulty, hungry and worn out, I ^[ii.244] said a word displeasing to my husband, and I found myself deserted, and as he left me he let fall bitter words and raged on me as if he were a rakshasa. If I attempt to return, my native country is a very long distance off; if I stop, then I am left alone in a strange place: staying or returning I am without support. I have, therefore, dared to tell you the true state of things.”

Simha said, “If your words be true, you have done right.” Then she entered the king’s house to dwell there. Not long after Simhala came, and his father addressing him said, “How is it you esteemed riches and gems so much and made so little of your wife and child?” Simhala said, “This is a rakshasi.” Then he related the whole previous history to his father and mother; then his relatives, angry on account of the whole affair, turned on her to drive her away; on which the rakshasi went to the king and entreated him. The king wished to punish Simhala, but Simhala said, “The delusive influence of rakshasis is very great.”

Moreover, the king, regarding his son’s words as untrue, and being moved in his mind (feelings) by her fascination, addressed Simhala and said, “Since you have decided to reject this woman, I will now protect her in my after-palace.” Simhala said, “I fear she will cause you some misfortune, for the rakshasas eat only flesh and blood.”

But the king would not listen to Simhala’s words, and accordingly took her as his wife. In the middle of the night following this, flying away, she returned to Ratna-dvipa, and calling together 500 rakshasa-demon women, they all came to the king’s palace, and there, by means of destructive charms and sorceries, they killed all living things within the building and devoured their flesh and ^[ii.245] drank their blood, while they carried off the rest of the corpses and with them returned to the Island of Gems (Ratna-dvipa). The next day, early, all the ministers were assembled at the king’s gates, which they found fast closed, and not able to be opened. After waiting a long time, and not hearing any sounds of voices within, they burst open the doors and gates, and pressed forward together (into the house). Coming to the palace hall, they found no living thing therein but only gnawed bones. The officers looking at one another in astonishment, then bent down their heads in their confusion, and uttered lamentable cries. Being unable to fathom the cause of the calamity that had happened, Simhala related to them from beginning to end the whole story. The ministers and people then saw from whence the evil came.

On this, the ministers of the country, the aged men and different officers, inquired in order as to the best person to appoint to the high dignity (of the throne). All looked in the direction of Simhala, (so conspicuous for) religious merit and wisdom. Then speaking together, they said, “ With respect to a ruler, the selection is no trivial matter; he needs to be devout and wise, and at the same time of quick natural parts. If he be not good and wise, he would not be able to give luster to the succession; if he have no natural parts (skill or tact), how could he direct the affairs of state? Now this Simhala appears to be such a man: he discovered in a dream the origin of the calamity; by the effect of his virtue he encountered the divine horse, and he has loyally warned the king of his danger. By his prudence he has preserved himself; the succession should be his.”

The result of the deliberation being known, the people joyfully raised him to the honorable position of king. Simhala was desirous of declining the honor, but was ^[ii.246] not able to do so. Then keeping to the middle course, he respectfully saluted the different officers of state, and forthwith accepted the kingly estate. On this, he corrected the former abuses, and promoted to honor the good and virtuous; then he made the following decree, “My old merchant friends are in the country of the rakshasis, but whether alive or dead I cannot tell. But in either case I will set out to rescue them from their danger; we must equip an army. To avert calamities and to help the unfortunate, this is the merit of a kingdom; to preserve treasures of precious stories and jewels, is the advantage of a state.”

On this he arrayed his troops and embarked. Then on the top of Iron City the evil flag was agitated.

Then the rakshasis, seeing it, were filled with fear and, putting in practice their seducing arts, went forth to lead and cajole them. But the king, thoroughly understanding their false artifices, commanded the soldiers to recite some charmed words and to exhibit their martial bearing Then the rakshasis were driven back, and fled precipitately to rocky islets of the sea; others were swallowed up and drowned in the waves. On this they destroyed Iron City and broke down the iron prison; they delivered the captive merchants, obtained large stores of jewels and precious stones, and then summoning the people to change their abodes, he (Simhala) founded his capital in the Island of Gems, built towns, and so found himself at the head of a, kingdom. Because of the king’s name the country was called Simhala. This name is also connected with the Jatakas, relating to Shakya Tathagata.

The Kingdom of Simhala formerly was addicted to immoral religious worship, but after the first hundred years following Buddha’s death the younger brother of Ashoka-raja, Mahendra by name, giving up worldly desires, ^[ii.247] sought with ardor the fruit of arhat-ship. He gained possession of the Six Supernatural Powers and the Eight Means of Liberation; and having the power of instant locomotion, he came to this country. He spread the knowledge of the True Law and widely diffused the bequeathed doctrine. From his time there has fallen on the people a believing heart, and they have constructed 100 monasteries, containing some 20,000 priests. They principally follow the teaching of Buddha, according to the dharma of the Sthavira (Shangzuobu) School of the Mahayana Sect. When 200 years had elapsed, through discussion, the one school was divided into two. The former, called the Mahaviharavasinas (Mohepiheluozhubu), was opposed to the Great Vehicle and adhered to the teaching of the Little Vehicle; the other was called Abhayagirivasinas (Abayeqilizhubu); they studied both vehicles, and widely diffused the Tripitakas. The priests attended to the moral rules, and were distinguished for their power of abstraction and their wisdom. Their correct conduct was an example for subsequent ages; their manners grave and imposing.

^[ii.248] By the side of the king’s palace is the Vihara of Buddha’s Tooth, several hundred feet high, brilliant with jewels and ornamented with rare gems. Above the vihara is placed an upright pole on which is fixed a great padma-raja (‘ruby’) jewel. This gem constantly sheds a brilliant light, which is visible night and day for a long distance, and afar off appears like a bright star. The king three times a day washes the tooth of Buddha with perfumed water, sometimes with powdered perfumes. Whether washing or burning, the whole ceremony is attended with a service of the most precious jewels. [1]

By the side of the Vihara of Buddha’s Tooth is a little vihara which is also ornamented with every kind of precious stone. In it is a golden statue of Buddha; it was cast by a former king of the country, and is of the size of life. He afterwards ornamented the headdress (ushnisha) with a precious gem.

In course of time there was a robber who formed the design to carry off the precious stone, but as it was guarded by a double door and a surrounding balustrade, the thief resolved to tunnel out an entrance underneath the obstacles, and so to enter the vihara and take the jewel. Accordingly he did so, but on attempting to seize the gem, the figure gradually raised itself higher, and outreached the grasp of the thief. He, then, finding his efforts of no avail, in departing sighed out thus, “Formerly when Tathagata was practicing the life of a bodhisattva, he cherished in himself a great heart and vowed that for ^[ii.250] the sake of the four kinds of living things he would of his compassion give up everything, from his own life down to his country and its towns. But now the statue which stands in his place (bequeathed) begrudges to give up the precious stone. His words, weighed against this, do not seem to illustrate his ancient conduct.” On this the statue lowered its head and let him take the gem. The thief, having got it, went to the merchants to sell it; on which they all exclaimed and said, “This is the gem which our former king placed on the head-dress of the golden statue of Buddha. Where have you got it from, that you want to sell it surreptitiously to us?” Then they took him to the king and stated the case. The king then asked him from whom he had procured the gem, on which the ‘thief said, “Buddha himself gave it to me. I am no robber.” The king not believing him, ordered a messenger to be sent immediately to ascertain the truth. On arriving he found the head of the statue still bent down. The king seeing the miracle, his heart was affected by a sincere and firm faith. He would not punish the man, but bought the gem again from him, and ornamented with it the headdress of the statue. Because the head of the figure was thus bent on that occasion, it remains so until now.

By the side of the king’s palace there is built a large kitchen, in which daily is measured out food for eight thousand priests. The mealtime having come, the priests arrive with their patras to receive their allowance. Having received and eaten it, they return, all of them, to their several abodes. Ever since the teaching of Buddha reached this country, the king has established this charity, and his successors have continued it down to our times. But during the last ten years or so the country has been in confusion, and there has been no established ruler to attend to this business.

^[ii.251] In a bay on the coast of the country the laud is rich in gems and precious stones. The king himself goes (there) to perform religious services, on which the spirits present him with rare and valuable objects. The inhabitants of the capital come, seeking to share in the gain, and invoke the spirits for that purpose. What they obtain is different according to their religious merit. They pay a tax on the pearls they find, according to their quantity.

On the southeast corner of the country is Mount Lanka. Its high crags and deep valleys are occupied by spirits that come and go; it was here that Tathagata formerly delivered the Lanka sutra (Lankavatara , or Lengqiejing)

Passing seawards to the south of this country some ^[ii.252] thousands of li, we arrive at the island of Narakira (Naluojiluo). The people of this island are small of stature, about three feet high; their bodies are those of men, but they have the beaks of birds; they grow no grain, but live only on cocoa-nuts.

Crossing the sea westward from this island several thousands of li, on the eastern cliff of a solitary island is a stone figure of Buddha more than 100 feet high. It is sitting facing the east. In the head-ornament (ushnisha) is a stone called Chandrakanta (Yueaizhu). When the Moon begins to wane, water immediately runs down from this in a stream along the sides of the mountain, and along the ravines of the precipices.

At one time there was a band of merchants who were driven by the winds and waves during a storm, until they reached this solitary island. The seawater being salt, they were unable to drink it, and were parched with thirst for a long time. But now on the fifteenth day, when the Moon was full, from the head of the image water began to trickle forth, and they obtained deliverance. They all thought that a miracle had been wrought, and were affected with a profound faith; they ^[ii.253] determined then to delay on the island. Some days having elapsed, as soon as the Moon began to be hidden behind the high steeps, the water did not flow out. Then the merchant-chief said, “It cannot have been specially on our account that the water ran down. I have heard that there is a pearl ‘Loved by the Moon,’ when the Moon’s rays shine full on it, then the water begins to flow from it. The gem on the top of the statue of Buddha must be one of this sort.” Then having climbed the mountain to examine the case, they saw that it was a Chandrakanta pearl in the head-ornament of the figure. This is the origin of the story as it was told by those men.

Crossing the sea many thousand li to the west of this country, we come to a large island renowned for its precious stones (or Maharatna- dvipa); it is not inhabited, except by spirits. Seen from a distance on a calm night, a light seems to shine from mountains and valleys. Merchants going there are much surprised to find nothing can be procured.

Leaving the country of Dravida (Daluopitu) and traveling northwards, we enter a forest wild, in which are a succession of deserted towns, or rather little villages. Brigands, in concert together, wound and capture (or ‘delay’) travelers. After going 2,000 li or so we come to Konkanapura (Gongjiannabuluo).

2. Gongjiannabuluo (Konkanapura)

This country is about 5000 li in circuit. The capital is ^[ii.254] 3000 li or so round. The land is rich and fertile; it is regularly cultivated, and produces large crops. The climate is hot; the disposition of the people ardent and quick. Their complexion is black, and their manners fierce and uncultivated. They love learning, and esteem virtue and talent. There are about 100 sangharamas, with some 10,000 priests (‘followers’). They study both the Great and the Little Vehicle, They also highly reverence the devas, and there are several hundred temples in which many sectaries dwell together.

By the side of the royal palace is a great sangharama with some 300 priests, who are all men of distinction. This monastery has a great vihara, a hundred feet and more in height. In it is a precious tiara belonging to Sarvarthasiddha (Yiqieyicheng) the prince. It is somewhat less than two feet in height, and is ornamented with gems and precious stones. It is kept in a jewelled casket. On fast-days it is brought out and placed on a high throne. They offer to it flowers and incense, on which occasions it is lit up with radiance.

By the side of the city is a great sangharama in which is avihara about 50 feet high. In this is a figure of Maitreya- bodhisattva carved out of sandalwood. It is about ten feet high. This also on fast-days reflects a bright light. It is the work of thearhat Srutavimsatikoti (Wenerbaiyi). ^[ii.255] To the north of the city not far is a forest of tala trees about 30 li round. The leaves (of this tree) are long and broad, their color shining and glistening. In all the countries of India these leaves are everywhere used for writing on. In the forest is a stupa. Here the four former Buddhas sat down and walked for exercise, and traces of them still remain. Beside this is a stupa containing the bequeathed relics of the arhat Srutavimsatikoti.

Not far to the east of the city is a stupa which has sunk down into the ground from its foundations, but is still about thirty feet high. The old tradition says, in this stupa is a relic of Tathagata, and on religious days (‘holy days’) it exhibits a miraculous light. In old days, when Tathagata was in the world, he preached in this place, and exhibited his miraculous powers and converted a multitude of men.

Not far to the southwest of the city is a stupa about a hundred feet high, which was built by Ashoka-raja. Here the arhat Srutavimsatikoti exhibited great miraculous powers and converted a great many people. By the side of it is a sangharama, of which only the foundations remain. This was built by the forenamed arhat.

From this going northwest, we enter a great forest wild, where savage beasts and bands of robbers inflict injury on travelers. Going thus 2,400 or 2,500 li, we come to the country of Mohelacha (Maharashtra).

3. Mohelacha (Maharashtra)

This country is about 5000 li in circuit. The capital borders on the west on a great river. It is about 30 li ^[ii.256] round. The soil is rich and fertile; it is regularly cultivated and very productive. The climate is hot; the disposition of the people is honest and simple; they are tall of stature, and of a stern, vindictive character. To their benefactors they are grateful; to their enemies relentless. If they are insulted, they will risk their life to avenge themselves. If they are asked to help one in distress, they will forget themselves in their haste to render assistance. If they are going to seek revenge, they first give their enemy warning; then, each being armed, they attack each other with lances (‘spears’). When one turns to flee, the other pursues him, but they do not kill a man down (a person who submits). If a general loses a battle, they do not inflict punishment, but present him with woman’s clothes, and so he is driven to seek death for himself. The country provides for a band of champions to the number of several hundred. Each time they are about to engage in conflict they intoxicate themselves with wine, and then one man with lance in hand will meet ten thousand and challenge them in fight. If one of these champions meets a man and kills him, the laws of the country do not punish him. Every time they go forth they beat drums before them. Moreover, they inebriate many hundred heads of elephants, and, taking them out to fight, they themselves first drink their wine, and then rushing forward in mass, they trample everything down, so that no enemy can stand before them.

The king, in consequence of his possessing these men and elephants, treats his neighbors with contempt. He is of the Kshattriya caste, and his name is Pulakesi (Buluojishe). His plans and undertakings are widespread, and his beneficent actions are felt over a great distance. His subjects obey him with perfect submission. At the present time Shiladitya Maharaja has conquered the nations from east to west, and carried his arms to remote districts, but the people of this country alone have not ^[ii.257] submitted to him. He has gathered troops from the Five Indies, and summoned the best leaders from all countries, and himself gone at the head of his army to punish and subdue these people, but he has not yet conquered their troops.

So much for their habits. The men are fond of learning, and study both heretical and orthodox (books). There are about 100 sangharamas, with 5000 or so priests. They practice both the Great and Small Vehicle. There are about 100 deva-temples, in which very many heretics of different persuasions dwell.

Within and without the capital are five stupas to mark the spots where the Four Past Buddhas walked and sat. They were built by Ashoka- raja. There are, besides these, other stupas made of brick or stone, so many that it would be difficult to name them all.

Not far to the south of the city is a sangharama in which is a stone image of Avalokitesvara-bodhisattva (Guanzizai). Its spiritual powers extend (far and wide), so that many of those who have secretly prayed to it have obtained their wishes.

On the eastern frontier of the country is a great mountain with towering crags and a continuous stretch of piled-up rocks and scarped precipice. In this there is a sangharama constructed, in a dark valley. Its lofty halls and deep side-aisles stretch through the (or ‘open into the’) face of the rocks. Storey above storey they are backed by the crag and face the valley (‘watercourse’).

This monastery was built by the arhat Achara (Azheluo). Thisarhat was a man of Western India. His ^[ii.258] mother having died, he looked to see in what condition she was re-born. He saw that she had received a woman’s body in this kingdom. The arhat accordingly came here with a view to convert her, according to her capabilities of receiving the truth. Having entered a village to beg food, he came to the house where his mother had been born. A young girl came forth with food to give him. At this moment the milk came from her breasts and trickled down. Her friends having seen this considered it an unlucky sign, but the arhat recounted the history of her birth. The girl thus attained the holy fruit (of arhat-ship). The arhat, moved with gratitude for her who had borne and cherished him, and remembering the end of such (good) works, from a desire to requite her, built this sangharama. The great vihara of the monastery is about 100 feet or so in height; in the middle is a stone figure of Buddha about 70 feet or so high. Above it is a stone canopy of seven stages, towering upwards apparently without support. The space between each canopy is about three feet. According to the old report, this is held in its place by the force of the vow of the arhat. They also say it is by the force of his miraculous powers; others say by the virtue of some magical compound; but no trustworthy account has yet explained the reason of the wonder. On the four sides of the vihara, on the stone walls, are painted different scenes in the life of Tathagata’s preparatory life as a bodhisattva: the ^[ii.259] wondrous signs of good fortune which attended his acquirement of the holy fruit (of a Buddha), and the spiritual manifestations accompanying his nirvana. These scenes have been cut out with the greatest accuracy and fineness. On the outside of the gate of the sangharama, on the north and south side, at the right hand and the left, there is a stone elephant. The common report says that sometimes these elephants utter a great cry and the earth shakes throughout. In old days Jina-bodhisattva often stopped in this sangharama. Going from this 1,000 li or so to the west, and crossing the Narmada (Naimeituo) River, we arrive at the Kingdom of Bharukachheva (Balujiechepo).

4. Balujiechepo (Bharukachheva)

This kingdom is 2,400 or 2,500 li in circuit. Its capital is 20 li round. The soil is impregnated with salt. Trees and shrubs are scarce and scattered. They boil the seawater to get the salt, and their sole profit is from the sea. The climate is warm. The air is always agitated with gusts of wind. Their ways are cold and indifferent; the disposition of the people crooked and perverse. They do not cultivate study, and are wedded to error and true^[ii.260] doctrine alike. There are some ten sangharamas, with about 300 believers. They adhere to the Great Vehicle and the Sthavira School. There are also about ten deva -temples, in which sectaries of various kinds congregate.

Going from this northwest about 2,000 li, we come to the country of Malava (Molapo).

5. Molapo (Malava)

This country is about 6000 li in circuit. The capital is some 30 li round. It is defended (or supported) by the Mahi River on the south and east. The soil is rich and fertile, and produces abundant harvests. Shrubs and trees are numerous and flourishing. Flowers and fruit are met with in great quantities. The soil is suitable in an especial manner for winter wheat. They mostly eat biscuits and (or ‘made of’) parched corn flour. The disposition of the men is virtuous and docile, and they are in general of remarkable intelligence. Their language is elegant and clear, and their learning is wide and profound.

Two countries in India, on the borders, are remarkable for the great learning of the people, viz. Malava on the southwest and Magadha on the northeast. In this they esteem virtue and respect politeness (humanity). They are of an intelligent mind and exceedingly studious; nevertheless the men of this country are given to heretical ^[ii.261] belief as well as the true faith, and so live together. There are about 100 sangharamas in which some 2,000 priests dwell. They study the Little Vehicle, and belong to the Sammatiya School. There are 100 deva-temples of different kinds. The heretics are very numerous, but principally the Pashupatas (‘cinder-covering’) heretics.

The records of the country state: Sixty years before this flourished Shiladitya, a man of eminent wisdom and great learning; his skill in literature was profound. He cherished and protected the four kinds of creatures, and deeply respected the three treasures. From the time of his birth to his last hour, his face never crimsoned with anger, nor did his hands ever injure a living thing. His elephants and horses drank water that had been strained, after which he gave it them, lest any creature living in the water should be injured. Such were his love and humanity. During the fifty years and more of his reign, the wild beasts became familiar with men, and the people did not injure or slay them. By the side of his palace he built a vihara. He exhausted the skill of the artists, and used every kind of ornament in decorating it. In it he put images of the seven Buddhas, Lords of the World. Every year he convoked an assembly called Moksha Mahaparishad, and summoned the priests of the four quarters. He offered them the Four Things in religious charity; he also gave them sets of three garments used in their religious services, and also bestowed on them the Seven Precious Substances and jewels in wonderful variety. This meri^[ii.262]torious custom has continued in practice without interruption until now.

To the northwest of the capital about 200 li, we come to the town of the Brahmans. By the side of it is a hollow ditch; into this the winter and summer streams flow continually, but though through decades of days the water runs into the hollow, yet it never seems to increase in quantity. By the side of it again is a little stupa. The old traditions of the country say: Formerly a Brahman of an exceedingly haughty mind fell alive into this pit and went down to hell. In old days there was a Brahman born in this town, who was acquainted with all things, and of learning beyond all the eminent men of his time. He had penetrated the secrets and dark sayings of books sacred and profane. He was acquainted with the calculations of astronomy as if they were in his hand; his fame was widespread and his behavior without blemish. The king very highly esteemed him, and the people of the country made much of him. He had some 1,000 disciples, who appreciated his doctrine and respected his character. He constantly said of himself, “I am come into the world for the purpose of publishing abroad the holy doctrine and to guide the people. Among the former sages, or those who have arrived at wisdom after them, there is none to compare with me. Mahesvara-deva, Vasu-deva, Narayana- deva, Buddha-lokanatha, men everywhere worship these, and publish abroad their doctrine, represent them in their effigies, and pay them worship and honor. But now I am greater than they in character, and my fame exceeds that of all living. Why should they then be so notorious, for they have done no wonderful thing.”

^[ii.263]Accordingly, he made out of red sandalwood figures of Maheshvara-deva, Vasu-deva, Narayana-deva, Buddha- lokanatha, and placed them as feet to his chair, and wherever he went as a rule he took this chair with him, showing his pride and self-conceit.

Now at this time there was in Western India a bhikshu, Bhadraruchi (Batuoluolüzhi) by name; he had thoroughly exhausted the Hetuvidya (Shastra) and deeply investigated the sense of different discourses (‘treatises’). He was of excellent repute, and the perfume of his exceeding goodness (morality) spread in every direction. He had few desires and was contented with his lot, seeking nothing in the world. Hearing (of the Brahman) he sighed and said, “Alas! How sad. This age (‘time’) has no (one worthy to be called a) man; and so it permits that foolish master to dare to act as he does in defiance of virtue.”

On this, he took his staff, and traveling afar, he came to this country. While dwelling therein his mind was made up and he acquainted the king with it. The king, seeing his dirty clothes, conceived no reverence for him; but, in consideration of his high purpose, he forced himself to give him honor (to treat him with respect), and so he arranged the chair of discussion and called the Brahman. The Brahman hearing it smiled and said, “What man is this who has dared to conceive such an idea (‘to cherish this determination’)?”

His disciples having come together, and many (hundred) thousands of listeners being arranged before and behind the discussion arena to attend as hearers, then Bhadraruchi, with his ancient robes and tattered clothes, arranging some grass on the ground, sat down. Then the Brahman, sitting on his chair which he carried with him, began to revile the True Law and to praise the teaching of the heretical schools.

The bhikshu, with a clear distinction, like the running ^[ii.264] of water, encircled his arguments in order. Then the Brahman after a while yielded, and confessed himself conquered.

The king replying said, “For a long time you have assumed a false reputation; you have deceived the sovereign and affected the multitude with delusion. Our old rescripts say, ‘He who is defeated in discussion ought to suffer death.’” Then he prepared to have a heated plate of iron to make him sit thereon; the Brahman thereupon, overpowered by fear, fell down to entreat pardon (deliverance).

Then Bhadraruchi, pitying the Brahman, came and requested the king, saying, “Maharaja! Your virtue extends far and wide; the sound of your praises resounds through the public ways. Then let your goodness extend even to protect this man: give not way to a cruel design. Pass over his want of success and let him go his way.” Then the king ordered him to be placed on an ass and to be proclaimed through all the towns and villages (as an impostor).

The Brahman, nettled by his defeat, was so affected that he vomited blood. The bhikshu having heard of it, went to condole with him, and said, “Your learning embraces subjects religious and profane; your renown is spread through all parts; in questions of distinction, or the contrary, success or defeat must be born; but after all, what is there of reality in fame?” The Brahman, filled with rage, roundly abused the bhikshu, calumniated the system of the Great Vehicle, and treated with contumely the holy ones who had gone before; but the sound of his words had scarcely been lost before the earth opened and swallowed him up alive; and this is the origin of the traces still left in the ditch.

Going southwest we come to a bay of the sea, then ^[ii.265] going 2,400 or 2,500 li northwest we come to the kingdom of Atali (Azhali).

6. Azhali (Atali)

This country is about 6,000 li in circuit; the capital of the country is about 20 li or so in circuit. The population is dense; the quality of gems and precious substances stored up is very great; the produce of the land is sufficient for all purposes, yet commerce is their principal occupation. The soil is salt and sandy, the fruits and flowers are not plentiful. The country produces the hu jiao tree. The leaves of this tree are like those of the shu-pepper ( shu jiao); it also produces the xunlu perfume tree, the leaf of which is like the tangli. The climate is warm, windy, and dusty. The disposition of the people is cold and indifferent. They esteem riches and despise virtue. Respecting their letters, language, and the manners and figures of the people, these are much the same as in the country of Malava. The greater part of the people have no faith in the virtue of religious merit; as to those who do believe, they worship principally the spirits of heaven, and their temples are some thousand in number, in which sectaries of different characters congregate.

Going northwest from the country of Malava, after passing over 300 li or so, we come to the country of Kachha (Qizha).

7. Qizha (Kachha)

^[ii.266] This country is 3,000 li or so in circuit, the capital about 20 li. The population is dense, the establishments wealthy. There is no king (‘great ruler’) among them; the country is an appanage of Malava, and the climate, products of the soil, and manners of the people are very similar in both countries. There are some ten sangharamas , with about 1,000 priests, who study alike the Great and the Little Vehicle. There are also several tens of deva-temples with very many unbelievers (‘sectaries’).

From this going north 1,000 li or so, we come to Valabhi (Falapi).

8. Falapi (Valabhi)

This country is 6000 li or so in circuit, the capital about 30. The character of the soil, the climate, and manners of the people are like those of the Kingdom of Malava. The population is very dense; the establishments rich. There are some hundred houses (families) or so, who possess a hundred lakhs. The rare and valuable products of distant regions are here stored in great quantities. There are some hundred sangharamas, with about 6,000 priests. Most of them study the Little Vehicle, according to the Sammatiya School. There ^[ii.267] are several hundred deva -temples with very many sectaries of different sorts.

When Tathagata lived in the world, he often traveled through this country. Hence Ashoka-raja raised monuments or built stupas in all those places where Buddha rested. Scattered among these are spots where the three past Buddhas sat down, or walked, or preached the law. The present king is of the Kshattriya caste, as they all are. He is the nephew of Shiladitya-raja of Malava, and son-in-law of the son of Shiladitya, the present king of Kanyakubja. His name is Dhruvapata (Dulupobazha). He is of a lively and hasty disposition, his wisdom and statecraft are shallow. Quite recently he has attached himself sincerely to faith in the Three Precious Ones. Yearly he summons a great assembly, and for seven days gives away most valuable gems, exquisite meats, and on the priests he bestows in charity the three garments and medicaments, or their equivalent in value, and precious articles made of rare and costly gems of the seven sorts. Having given these in charity, he redeems them at twice their price. He esteems virtue (or ‘the virtuous’) and honors the good; he reverences those who are noted for their wisdom. The great priests ^[ii.268] who come from distant regions he particularly honors and respects.

Not far from the city is a great sangharama which was built by the arhat Achara (Azheluo); here the bodhisattvas Gunamati and Sthiramati (Jianhui) fixed their residences during their travels and composed treatises which have gained a high renown. From this going northwest 700 li or so, we come to Anandapura (Anantuobuluo).

9. Anantuobuluo (Anandapura)

This country is about 2000 li in circuit, the capital about 20. The population is dense; the establishments rich. There is no chief ruler, but it is an appanage of Malava. The produce, climate, and literature and laws are the same as those of Malava. There are some ten sangharamas with less than 1,000 priests; they study the Little Vehicle of the Sammatiya School. There are several tens of deva -temples, and sectaries of different kinds frequent them.

Going west from Valabhi 500 li or so, we come to the country of Surashtra (Sulacha).

10. Sulacha (Surashtra)

This country is 4000 li or so in circuit, the capital ^[ii.269] about 30 li. On the west the chief town borders on the Mahi River; the population is dense, and the various establishments (‘families’) are rich. The country is dependent on Valabhi. The soil is impregnated with salt; flowers and fruit are rare. Although the climate is equable, yet there is no cessation of tempests. The manners of the people are careless and indifferent; their disposition light and frivolous. They do not love learning and are attached both to the true faith and also to heretical doctrine. There are some fifty sangharamas in this kingdom, with about 3000 priests; they mostly belong to the Sthavira School of the Great Vehicle. There are a hundred or so deva-temples, occupied by sectaries of various sorts. As this country is on the western sea route, the men all derive their livelihood from the sea and engage in commerce and exchange of commodities.

Not far from the city is a mountain called Ujjanta (Yushanduo), on the top of which is a sangharama. The cells and galleries have mostly been excavated from the mountainside. The mountain is covered with thick jangle and forest trees, while streams flow round its limits. Here saints and sages roam and rest, and rishis endued with spiritual faculties congregate here and stay.

Going north from the country of Valabhi 1,800 li or so, we come to the kingdom of Gurjjara (Quzheluo).

11. Quzheluo (Gurjjara)

This country 80 is 5,000 li or so in circuit, the capital, ^[ii.270] which is called Balmer (Piluomoluo), is 30 li or so round. The produce of the soil and the manners of the people resemble those of Surashtra. The population is dense; the establishments are rich and well supplied with materials (‘wealth’). They mostly are unbelievers; a few are attached to the Law of Buddha, There is one sangharama, with about a hundred priests; they are attached to the teaching of the Little Vehicle and the School of the Sarvastivadas. There are several tens of deva -temples, in which sectaries of various denominations dwell. The king is of the Kshattriya caste. He is just twenty years old; he is distinguished for wisdom, and he is courageous. He is a deep believer in the Law of Buddha; and highly honors men of distinguished ability.

From this going southeast 2,800 li or so, we come to the country of Ujjayani (Wusheyanna).

12. Wusheyanna (Ujjayani)

This country is about 6000 li in. circuit; the capital is some 30 li round. The produce and manners of the people are like those of the country of Surashtra. The population is dense and the establishments wealthy. There are several tens of monasteries, but they are mostly in ruins; some three or five are preserved. There are some 300 priests; they study the doctrines both of the Great and the Little Vehicle. There are several tens of deva-temples, occupied by sectaries of various kinds. ^[ii.271] The king belongs to the Brahman caste. He is well versed in heretical books, and believes not in the True Law. Not far from the city is a stupa; this is the place where Ashoka-raja made the hell (of punishment).

Going northeast from this 1,000 li or so, we come to the kingdom of Zhizhituo.

13. Zhizhituo

This country is about 4000 li in circuit; the capital is some 15 or 16 li round. The soil is celebrated for its fertility; it is regularly cultivated and yields abundant crops; it is specially adapted for beans and barley; it produces abundance of flowers and fruits. The climate is temperate; the people are naturally virtuous and docile; most of them believe in heretical doctrine, a few honor the Law of Buddha. There are several tens of sangharamas with few priests. There are about ten deva-temples, which some thousand followers frequent. The king is of the Brahman caste. He firmly believes in the (Three) Precious Ones; he honors and rewards those who are distinguished for virtue. Very many learned men from distant countries congregate in this place.

Going from here north 900 li or so, we come to the kingdom of Mahesvarapura (Moxishifaluobuluo).

14. Moxishifaluobuluo (Mahesvarapura)

This kingdom is about 3000 li in circuit; the capital city is some 30 li round. The produce of the soil and the manners of the people are like those of the kingdom of Ujjayani. They greatly esteem the heretics and do not reverence the Law of Buddha. There are several tens of deva-temples, and the sectaries principally belong to the Pashupatas. The king is of the Brahman caste; he places but little faith in the doctrine of Buddha.

From this, going in a backward direction to the country of Gurjjara (Quzheluo) and then proceeding northward ^[ii.272] through wild deserts and dangerous defiles about 1,900 li, crossing the great Indus (Xindu) River, we come to the kingdom of Sindh (Xindu).

15. Xindu (Sindh)

This country is about 7000 li in circuit; the capital city, called Vichavapura (Pishanpobuluo), is about 30 li round. The soil is favorable for the growth of cereals and produces abundance of wheat and millet. It also abounds in gold and silver and native copper. It is suitable for the breeding of oxen, sheep, camels, mules, and other kinds of beasts. The camels are small in size and have only one hump. They find here a great quantity of salt, which is red like cinnabar; also white salt, black salt and rock salt. In different places, both far and near, this salt is used for medicine. The disposition of the men is hard and impulsive; but they are honest and upright. They quarrel and are much given to contradiction. They study without aiming to excel; they have faith in the law of Buddha. There are several hundred sangharamas, occupied by about 10,000 priests. They study the Little Vehicle according to the Sammatiya School. As a rule, they are indolent and given to indulgence and debauchery. Those who are very earnest as followers of the virtue of the sages live alone in desert places, dwelling far off in the mountains and the forests. There night and day they exert themselves in aiming after the acquirement of the holy fruit (of arhat-ship). There are about thirty deva-temples, in which sectaries of various kinds congregate.

The king is of the Shudra (Shutuoluo) caste. He is by nature honest and sincere, and he reverences the law of Buddha.

When Tathagata was in the world, he frequently passed through this country, therefore Ashoka-raja has founded several tens of stupas in places where the sacred traces of ^[ii.273] his presence were found. Upagupta, the great arhat, sojourned very frequently in this kingdom, explaining the Law and convincing and guiding men. The places where he stopped and the traces he left are all commemorated by the building of sangharamas or the erection of stupas. These buildings are seen everywhere; we can only speak of them briefly.

By the side of the river Sindh, along the flat marshy lowlands for some thousand li, there are several hundreds of thousands (‘a very great many’) of families settled. They are of an unfeeling and hasty temper, and are given to bloodshed only. They give themselves exclusively to tending cattle, and from this derive their livelihood. They have no masters, and, whether men or women, have neither rich nor poor; they shave their heads and wear the kashaya robes of bhikshus, whom they resemble outwardly, while they engage themselves in the ordinary, affairs of lay life. They hold to their narrow (‘little’) views and attack the Great Vehicle.

The old reports state that formerly these people were extremely hasty (‘impatient’), and only practiced violence and cruelty. At this time there was an arhat, who, pitying their perversity, and desiring to convert them, mounted in the air and came among them. He exhibited his miraculous powers and displayed his wonderful capabilities. Thus he led the people to believe and accept the doctrine, and gradually he taught them in words; all of them joyfully accepted his teaching and respectfully prayed him to direct them in their religious life. The arhat perceiving that the hearts of the people had become submissive, delivered to them the Three Refuges and restrained their cruel tendencies; they entirely gave up “taking life,” they shaved their heads, and assumed the soiled robes of a bhikshu, and obediently walked according to the doctrine of religion. Since then, generations have passed by and the changed times have weakened ^[ii.274] their virtue, but as for the rest, they retain their old customs. But though they wear the robes of religion, they live without any moral rules, and their sons and grandsons continue to live as worldly people, without any regard to their religious profession.

Going from this eastward 900 li or so, crossing the Sindh River and proceeding along the eastern bank, we come to the kingdom of Mulasthanapura (Maoluoshanbulu).

16. Maoluosanbulu (Mahesvarapura)

This country is about 4000 li in circuit; the capital town is some 30 li round. It is thickly populated. The establishments are wealthy. This country is in dependence on the kingdom of Cheka (Zhejia). The soil is rich and fertile. The climate is soft and agreeable; the manners of the people are simple and honest; they love learning and honor the virtuous. The greater part sacrifice to the spirits; few believe in the Law of Buddha. There are about ten sangharamas, mostly in ruins; there are a few priests, who study indeed, but without any wish to excel. There are eight deva-temples, in which sectaries of various classes dwell. There is a temple dedicated to the Sun, very magnificent and profusely decorated. The image of the Suri-deva is cast in yellow gold and ornamented with rare gems. Its divine insight is mysteriously manifested and its spiritual power made plain to all. Women play their music, light their torches, offer their flowers and perfumes to honor it. This custom has been continued from the very first. The kings and high families of the Five Indies never fail to make their offerings of gems and precious stones (to this deva). They have founded a house of mercy (‘happiness’), in which they provide food, and drink, and medicines for the poor and sick, affording succor and sustenance. Men from all ^[ii.275] countries come here to offer up their prayers; there are always some thousands doing so. On the four sides of the temple are tanks with flowering groves where one can wander about without restraint.

From this going northeast 700 li or so, we come to the country of Parvata (Bofaduo).

17. Bofaduo (Parvata)

This country is 5,000 li or so in circuit, its capital is about 20 li. It is thickly populated, and depends on the country of Cheska (Zhejia). A great deal of dry-ground rice is here grown. The soil is also fit for beans and wheat. The climate is temperate, the disposition of the people honest and upright. They are naturally quick and hasty; their language is low and common. They are well versed in composition and literature. There are heretics and believers in common. There are some ten sangharamas with about 1000 priests; they study both the Great and Little Vehicle. There are four stupas built by Ashoka- raja. There are also some twenty deva-temples frequented by sectaries of different sorts.

By the side of the chief town is a great sangharama with about 100 priests in it; they study the teaching of the Great Vehicle. It was here that Jinaputra, a Master of Shastras, composed the Yogacharyabhumi Shastrakarika; here also Bhadraruchi and Gunaprabha, Master of Shastras, embraced the religious life. This great sangharama has been destroyed by fire, and is now waste and ruined.

Leaving the Sindh country, and going southwest 1,500 or 1,600 li, we come to the kingdom of Atyanabakela (Adianpochiluo).

18. Adianpochiluo (Atyanabakela)

^[ii.276] This country is about 5000 li in circuit. The chief town is called Qieshifaluo, and is about 30 li round. It lies on the Sindh River, and borders on the Ocean, The houses are richly ornamented, and mostly possess rare and costly substances. Lately there has been no ruler; it is under the protection of Sindh. The soil is low and damp and the ground is impregnated with salt. It is covered with wild shrubs, and is mostly waste land: it is little cultivated, yet it produces some sorts of grain, but principally beans and wheat, of which there is a great quantity. The climate is rather cold and subject to violent storms of wind. It is fit for raising oxen, sheep, camels, asses, and other kinds of beasts. The disposition of the people is violent and hasty. They have no love for learning. Their language differs slightly from that of Mid-India. The people are generally honest and sincere. They deeply reverence the Three Precious Objects of worship. There are about eighty sangharamas with some 5,000 priests. They mostly study the Little Vehicle according to the Sammatiya School. There are ten deva-temples, mostly occupied by heretics belonging to the Pashupatas.

In the capital town is a temple of Mahevara-deva (Dazizaitian). The temple is ornamented with rich sculptures, and the image of the deva is possessed of great spiritual powers. The Pashupata heretics dwell in this temple. In old days Tathagata often traveled through this country to preach the law and convert men, leading the multitude and benefiting the people. On this account Ashoka-raja built stupas on the spots consecrated by the sacred traces, six in number.

Going west from this less than 2000 li, we come to the country of Langala (Langjieluo).

19. Langjieluo (Langala)

^[ii.277] This country is several thousand li from east to west and from north to south. The capital is about 30 li round. It is named Sunurishvara (Sutulishifaluo). The soil is rich and fertile, and yields abundant harvests. The climate and the manners of the people are like those of Atyanabakela (Adianpochiluo). The population is dense. It possesses abundance of precious gems and stones. It borders on the ocean. It is on the route to the Kingdom of the Western Women. It has no chief ruler. The people occupy a long valley, and are not dependent on one another. They are under the government of Persia. The letters are much the same as those of India; their language is a little different. There are believers and heretics living together among them. There are some hundred sangharamas, and perhaps 6,000 priests, who study the teaching of both the Little and Great Vehicle. There are several hundred deva -temples. The heretics called Pashupatas are exceedingly numerous. In the city is a temple to Mahesvara-deva; it is richly adorned and sculptured. The Pashupata heretics here offer their religious worship.

From this going northwest, we come to the kingdom of Persia (Bolasi).

20. Bolasi (Persia)

This kingdom is several myriad of li in circuit. Its chief town, called Surasthana (Sulasatangna), is about 40 li in circuit. The valleys are extensive, and so the climate differs in character, but in general it is warm. ^[ii.278] They draw the water up to irrigate the fields. The people are rich and affluent. The country produces gold, silver, copper, rock-crystal (sphatika), rare pearls, and various precious substances. Their artists know how to weave fine brocaded silks, woolen stuffs, carpets, and so on. They have many shan-horses and camels. In commerce they use large silver pieces. They are by nature violent and impulsive, and in their behavior they practice neither decorum nor justice. Their writing and their language are different from other countries. They care not for learning, but give themselves entirely to works of art. All that they make the neighboring countries value very much. Their marriage-customs are merely promiscuous intercourse. When dead their corpses are mostly abandoned. In stature they are tall: they tie up their hair (‘arrange their head-dress’) and go uncovered. Their robes are either of skin, or wool, or felt, or figured silk. Each family is subject to a tax of four pieces of silver per man. The deva-temples are very numerous. Dinava (Tinaba) is principally worshipped by the heretics. There are two or three sangharamas, with several hundred priests, who principally study the teaching of the Little Vehicle according to the Sarvastavadin School. The patra of Shakya Buddha is in this (country), in the king’s palace.

On the eastern frontiers of the country is the town of Ormuz (Hemo). The city inside is not great, but the external walls are in circuit about 60 li or so. The people who inhabit it are all very rich. To the northwest this country borders on the kingdom of Constantinople (Fulin) ^[ii.279] which resembles the kingdom of Persia in point of soil, and manners, and customs; but they differ in point of language and appearance of the inhabitants. These also possess a quantity of valuable gems, and are very rich.

To the southwest of Constantinople (Fulin), in an island of the sea, is the Kingdom of the Western Women; here there are only women, with no men; they possess a large quantity of gems and precious stones, which they exchange in Constantinople. Therefore the king of Constantinople sends certain men to live with them for a time. If they should have male children, they are not allowed to bring them up.

On leaving the kingdom of Atyanabakela (Adianpochiluo), and going north 700 li or so, we come to the country of Pitasila (Biduoshiluo).

21. Biduoshiluo (Pitasila)

This kingdom is about 3000 li round; the capital is some 20 li in circuit. The population is dense. They have no chief ruler, but they depend on the country of Sind (Xindu). The soil is salt and sandy; the country is subject to a cold tempestuous wind. A great quantity of beans and wheat is grown. Flowers and fruits are scarce. The manners of the people are fierce and rough. Their language slightly differs from that of Mid-India. They do not love learning, but as far as they know they have a sincere faith. There are some fifty sangharamas with about 3,000 priests; they study the Little Vehicle according to the School. There are twenty deva-temples, frequented mostly by the heretics called Pashupatas.

To the north of the city 15 or 16 li, in the middle of a great forest, is a stupa several hundred feet high, built by Ashoka-raja. It contains relics which from time ^[ii.280] to time emit a bright light. It was here that Tathagata when in old time he was a rishi, was subjected to the cruelty of the king.

Not far east from this is an old sangharama. This was built by the great arhat, the great Katyayana. By the side of it are traces where the Four Buddhas of the past age sat down and walked for exercise. They have erected a stupa to denote the spot.

Going northeast from this 300 li or so, we come to the country of Avanda (Afantu).

22. Atu (Avanda)

This kingdom is 2400 or 2500 li in circuit; the capital is about 20. There is no chief ruler, but the country is subject to Sindh (Xindu). The soil is fit for the cultivation of grain, and abounds in beans and wheat; it produces but few flowers or fruits; the woods are thin. The climate is windy and cold; the disposition of the men is fierce and impulsive. Their language is simple and uncultivated. They do not value learning, but they are earnest and sincere believers in the Three Gems. There are about twenty sangharamas, with some 2000 priests; they mostly study the Little Vehicle according to the Sammatiya School. There are some five deva-temples, frequented by the heretics called Pashupata.

To the northeast of the city, not a great distance, in the middle of a great bamboo forest is a sangharama mostly in ruins. Here Tathagata gave permission to the bhikshus to wear boots (jifuxi). By the side of it is a stupa built by Ashoka- raja. Although the foundations have sunk into the earth, yet the remains are some hundred feet high. In a vihara by the side of thestupa is a blue-stone standing figure of Buddha. On ^[ii.281] sacred days (‘fast-days’) it spreads abroad a divine light.

To the south 800 paces or so, in a forest, is a stupa which was built by Ashoka-raja. Tathagata, in time gone by, stopping here, finding it cold in the night, covered; himself with his three garments; on the morning following he permitted the bhikshus to wear wadded garments. In this wood is a place where Buddha walked for exercise. There are also a number of stupas placed opposite one another, where the Four Buddhas of the past age sat. In this stupa are relics of Buddha’s hair and nails. On holy days they emit a miraculous light.

Going from this northeast 900 li or so, we come to the country of Varana (Falana).

23. Falana (Varana)

This kingdom is about 4000 li in circuit, and the chief town about 20 li. The population is dense. The kingdom is subject to Kapisha. The chief portion of the country consists of mountains and forests. It is regularly cultivated. The climate is rather cold. The manners of the people are rough and fierce. They are persevering in their habits, but their purposes are low. Their language is somewhat like that of Mid-India. Some of them believe in Buddha, others not. They do not care about literature or the arts. There are some tens of sangharamas, but they are in ruins. There are about 300 priests, who study the Great Vehicle. There are about five deva-temples, frequented mostly by Pashupata heretics.

Not far to the south of the city is an old sangharama. Here Tathagata in old days preached, exhibiting the profit and delight of his doctrine, and opening the mind ^[ii.282] of his heaters. By the side of it are traces where the Four Past Buddhas sat down or walked for exercise. The common report says on the western frontier of this country is the kingdom of Kikana (Jijiangna). The people live amid the great mountains and valleys in separate clans. They have no chief ruler. They breed an immense quantity of sheep and horses. The skew, horses are of a large size, and the countries around breed but few, and therefore they are highly valued.

Leaving this country and going northwest, after traversing great mountains and crossing wide valleys, and passing a succession of smaller towns, and going 2000 li or so, we leave the frontiers of India and come to the kingdom of Tsaukuta (Caojuzha).