Xuanzang • Xiyu ji

^[i.283-326]

Book Twelve — Twenty Two Countries

1. Caojuzha (Tsaukuta) • 2. Fulishisatangna (Parsusthana) • 3. Andaluofu (Andarab)
4. Kuoxiduo (Khost) • 5. Huo (Kunduz) • 6. Mengjian (Munjan) • 7. Alini (Ahreng)
8. Heluohu (Ragh) • 9. Qilisemo (Khrishma)
10. Bolihe (Bolor) • 11. Ximodaluo (Himatala)
12. Boduochuangna (Badakshan) • 13. Yinbojian (Yamgan)
14. Qulangna (Kuran) • 15. Damoxitiedi (Termistat)
16. Shiqini (Shikhnan) • 17. Shangmi (Shambhi)
18. Qiepantuo (Khabandha) • 19. Wusha (Och) • 20. Qusha (Kashgar)
21. Zhuojujia (Yarkiang) • 22. Qusadanna (Khotan)

1. Caojuzha (Tsaukuta)

^[ii.283] THIS country is about 7000 li in circuit, the capital, which is called Ghazna (Hexina), is about 30 li round. There is another capital, Hesaluo, which is about 30 li round. Both of them are naturally strong and also fortified. Mountains and valleys succeed each other, with plains intervening, fit for cultivation. The land is sown and reaped in due season. Winter wheat is grown in great abundance; shrubs and trees grow in rich variety, and there are flowers and fruits in abundance. The soil is favorable for the tumeric plant (yujin) and for the assafoetida (xingqu) this last grows in the Ramendu (Luomoyindu) Valley.

In the city of Ghazni is a fountain, of which the water ^[ii.284] divides itself into many branches, and which the people utilize for the purposes of irrigation. The climate is cold; there are frequent hail and snow storms. The people are naturally light-hearted and impulsive; they are crafty and deceitful. They love learning and the arts, and show considerable skill in magical sentences, but they have no good aim in view.

They daily repeat several myriads of words; their writing and language differ from those of other countries. They are very specious in vain talk, but there is little body or truth in what they say. Although they worship a hundred (‘many’) spirits, yet they also greatly reverence the Three Precious Ones. There are several hundred sangharamas, with 1,000 or so priests. They all study the Great Vehicle. The reigning sovereign is sincere and honest in his faith, and is the successor of a long line of kings. He applies himself assiduously to religious work (‘merit’) and is well instructed and fond of learning. There are some ten stupas built by Ashoka-raja, and several tens of deva-temples, in which sectaries of various denominations dwell together.

The Tirthaka heretics are very numerous; they worship principally the Deva Kshuna (Shina). This deva spirit formerly came from Mount Aruna (Alunao) in Kapisha, and took up his abode here in the southern districts of this kingdom, in the Mount Sunagir. He is severe or good, causing misfortune or exercising violence. Those who invoke him with faith obtain their wishes; those who despise him reap misfortune. Therefore people both far off and near show for him deep reverence; high and low alike are filled with religious awe of him. The princes, nobles, and people of this as well as of foreign ^[ii.285] countries assemble every year at a season of rejoicing which is not fixed, and offer gold and silver and precious objects of rare value (‘choice trifles’), with sheep, and horses, and domestic animals; all which they present in simple and confiding trust, so that though the earth is covered with silver and gold, and the sheep and horses fill the valleys, yet no one would dare to covet them: they consider them as things set apart for sacred purposes. The heretics (tirthakas), by subduing their minds and mortifying their flesh, get from the spirits of heaven sacred formulae. By the use of these they are frequently able to control diseases and recover the sick.

Going from this northwards 500 li or so, we come to the kingdom of Parsusthana (Fulishisatangna).

2. Fulishisatangna (Parsusthana)

This kingdom 8 is about 2000 li from east to west and 1,000 li from north to south. The capital is called Hupian (Hubina), and is 20 li round. As regards the soil and the manners of the people, these are the same as in Tsaukuta (Caojuzha); the language, however, is different. The climate is icy cold; the men are naturally fierce and impetuous. The king is a Turk (Tujue). They have (or ‘he has’) profound faith for the Three Precious Objects of worship ; he esteems learning and honors virtue (or, ‘the virtuous,’ i.e., the priests).

Going to the northeast of this kingdom, traversing mountains and crossing rivers, and passing several tens of little towns situated on the frontier of the country of Kapisha, we come to a great mountain pass called Varasena ^[ii.286] (Poluoxina), which forms part of the great Snowy Mountains. This mountain pass is very high; the precipices are wild and dangerous; the path is tortuous, and the caverns and hollows wind and intertwine together. At one time the traveler enters a deep valley, at another he mounts a high peak, which in full summer is blocked with frozen ice. By cutting steps-up the ice the traveler passes on, and after three days he comes to the highest point of the pass. There the icy wind, intensely cold, blows with fury; the piled snow fills the valleys. Travelers, pushing their way through, dare not pause on their route. The very birds that fly in their wheeling flight cannot mount alone this point, but go afoot across the height and then fly downwards. Looking at the mountains round, they seem as little hillocks. This is the highest peak of all Jambudvipa. No trees are seen upon it, but only a mass of rocks, crowded one by the side of the other, like a wild forest.

Going on for three days more, we descend the pass and come to Andarab (Andaluofu).

3. Andaluofu (Andarab)

This is the old land of the Tukhara (Duhuoluo) country. It is about 3000 li round; the capital is 14 or 15 li round. They have no chief ruler; it is dependent on the Turks (Tujue). Mountains and hills follow in chains, with valleys intersecting them. The arable land is very contracted. The climate is very severe. The wind and the snow are intensely cold and violent; yet the country is regularly cultivated and productive: it is suitable also for flowers and fruits. The men are naturally fierce and ^[ii.287] violent. The common people are unrestrained in their ways, and know neither wrong nor right. They do not care about learning, and give themselves only to the worship of spirits. Few of them believe in the religion of Buddha. There are three sangharamas and some tens of priests. They follow the teaching of the Mahasanghika (Dazhongbu) School. There is one stupa built by Ashoka-raja.

Going northwest from this we enter a valley, skirt along a mountain pass, traverse several little towns, and after going about 400 li we arrive at Khost (Kuoxiduo).

4. Kuoxiduo (Khost)

This also is the old land of the Tukhara (Duhuoluo) country. It is about 3000 li in circuit; the capital is about 10 li round. It has no chief ruler, but is dependent on the Turks. It is mountainous, with many contracted valleys; hence it is subject to icy-cold winds. It produces much grain, and it abounds with flowers and fruits. The disposition of the men is fierce and violent; they live without laws. There are three sangharamas, with very few priests.

Going from this northwest, skirting the mountains and crossing the valleys, and passing by several towns, after about 300 li we come to the country called Kunduz (Huo).

5. Huo (Kunduz)

This country is also the old land of the Tukhara (Duhuoluo) country. It is about 3000 li in circuit; the chief town is about 10 li. There is no chief ruler, but the country depends on the Turks. The land is level and plain. It is regularly cultivated, and produces cereals in abundance. Trees and shrubs grow plentifully, and flowers and fruits (of various kinds) are wonderfully abundant. The climate is soft and agreeable; the manners of the people simple ^[ii.288] and honest. The men are naturally quick and impulsive; they clothe themselves with woolen garments. Many believe in the Three Precious Objects (of worship), and a few pay their adoration to the spirits. There are ten sangharamas with several hundred followers (‘priests’). They study both the Great and the Little Vehicle, and practice the discipline of both. The king is of the Turkish clan; he governs all the little kingdoms to the south of the Iron Gates. He constantly shifts his dwelling, like a bird (‘his bird-dwelling’), not constantly occupying this town.

Going east from this, we enter the Congling Mountains. These mountains are situated in the middle of Jambuduvipa. On the south they border on the great Snowy Mountains; on the north they reach to the Hot Sea (Lake Temurtu), and to the “Thousand Springs”; on the west they extend to the kingdom of Huo; on the east to the kingdom of Och (Wusha). From east to west and from north to south they run equally for several thousand li, and abound in many hundreds of steep peaks and dark valleys. The mountain heights are rendered dangerous by the glaciers and frozen snow. The cold winds blow with fury. As the land produces a great quantity of onions therefore it is called Congling; or because the crags of these mountains have a greenish-blue tint, hence also the name.

Going east 100 li or so, we come to the kingdom of Munjan (Mengjian).

6. Mengjian (Munjan)

This country is an old territory of the Tukhara (Duhuoluo) country. It is about 400 li in circuit. The chief city is about 15 or 16 li round. The soil and manners of the people resemble to a great extent the Kunduz (Huo) country. There is no chief ruler, but they depend on the Turks. Going north we come to the country of Ahreng (Alini).

7. Alini (Ahreng)

^[ii.289] This country is an old territory of Tukhara (Duhuoluo). It borders both sides of the Amu Darya River. It is about 300 li in circuit; the chief city is 14 or 15 li round. In character of its soil and manners of the people it greatly resembles the Kunduz (Huo) country.

Going east, we come to Ragh (Heluohu).

8. Heluohu (Ragh)

This country is an old territory of Tukhara (Duhuoluo). On the north it borders on the Amu Darya (Fuchu, or Vakshu). It is about 200 li in circuit. The chief town is about 14 or 15 li round. The products of the soil and the manners of the people greatly resemble the Kunduz (Huo) country.

Going eastward from the Munjan (Mengjian) country, skirting along high mountain passes, and penetrating deep valleys, and passing in succession various districts and towns, after a journey of 300 li or so we arrive at the country of Khrishma (Qilisemo).

9. Qilisemo (Khrishma)

This country is an old territory of Tukhara (Duhuoluo). From east to west it is 1000 li or so; from north to south it is 300 li. The capital is 15 or 16 li round. The soil and the manners of the people are just like those of Meng-jian, except that these men are naturally hot-tempered and violent.

Going northeast we come to the kingdom of Bolor (Bolihe).

10. Bolihe (Bolor)

This country is an old territory of Tukhara (Duhuoluo). From^[ii.290] east to west it is about 100 li, and from north to south about 300 li. The chief town is some 20 li or so in circuit. The produce of the soil and the manners of the people are like those of Khrishma (Qilisemo).

Going east from Khrishma (Qilisemo), after traversing mountains and crossing valleys for about 300 li, we come to the country of Himatala (Ximodaluo).

11. Ximodaluo (Himatala)

This country is an old territory of the country of Tukhara (Duhuoluo). It is about 300 li in circuit. It is cut up by mountains and valleys. The soil is rich and fertile, and fit for cereals. It produces much winter wheat. Every kind of plant flourishes, and fruits of all sorts grow in abundance. The climate is cold; the disposition of the men violent and hasty. They do not distinguish between wrong and right. Their appearance is vulgar and ignoble. In respect of their modes of behavior and forms of etiquette, their clothes of wool, and skin, and felt, they are like the Turks. Their wives wear upon their headdress a wooden horn about three feet or so in length. It has two branches (‘a double branch’) in front, which signify father and mother of the husband. The upper horn denotes the father, the lower one the mother. Whichever of these two dies first, they remove one horn, but when both are dead, they give up this style of headdress.

The first king of this country was a Shakya, fearless and bold. To the west of the Congling Mountains most of the people were subdued to his power. The frontiers were close to the Turks, and so they adopted their low customs, and suffering from their attacks they protected their frontier. And thus the people of this kingdom were dispersed into different districts, and had many tens of fortified cities, over each of which a separate chief was ^[ii.291] placed. The people live in tents made of felt, and lead the life of nomads.

On the west side this kingdom touches the country of Khrishma (Qilisemo). Going from this 200 odd li, we arrive at the country of Badakshan (Boduochuangna).

12. Boduochuangna (Badakshan)

This kingdom is an old territory of the Tukhara (Duhuoluo) country; it is about 2000 li in circuit, and the capital, which is placed on the side of a mountain precipice, is some 6 or 7 li in circuit. It is intersected with mountains and valleys, a vast expanse, of sand and stone stretches over it; the soil is fit for the growth of beans and wheat; it produces an abundance of grapes, the khamil peach, and plums, etc. The climate is very cold. The men are naturally fierce and hasty; their customs are ill-regulated; they have no knowledge of letters or the arts; their appearance is low and ignoble; they wear mostly garments of wool. There are three or four sangharamas, with very few followers. The king is of an honest and sincere disposition. He has a deep faith in the Three Precious Objects of worship.

Going from this southeast, passing across mountains and valleys, after 200 li or so we come to the country of Yamgan (Yinbojian).

13. Yinbojian (Yamgan)

This country is an old territory of the Tukhara (Duhuoluo) country. It is about 1000 li or so in circuit. The capital is about 10 li round. There is a connected line of hills and valleys through the country, with narrow strips of arable land. With respect to the produce of the soil, the climate, and the character of the people, these differ little from the kingdom of Badakshan (Boduochuangna), only the character of the language differs slightly. The king’s nature is ^[ii.292] violent and impulsive, and he does not know clearly the difference between right and wrong.

Going from this southeast, skirting the mountains and crossing the valleys, traversing thus by narrow and difficult ways a distance of 300 li or so, we arrive at the country of Kuran (Qulangna).

14. Qulangna (Kuran)

This country is an old territory of Tukhara (Duhuoluo); it is about 2000 li round. As regards the character of the soil, the mountains and the valleys, the climate and the seasons, it resembles the kingdom of Yamgan (Yinbojian). The customs of the people are without rule, their disposition is rough (‘common’) and violent; the greater portion do not attend to religion; a few believe in the Law of Buddha. The appearance of the people is displeasing and ungainly. They wear principally woolen garments. There is a mountain cavern from which much pure gold is procured (‘dug out’). They break the stones and afterwards procure the gold. There are few sangharamas, and scarcely any priests. The king is honest and simple-minded. He deeply reverences the Three Precious Objects of worship.

Going northeast from this, after climbing the mountains and penetrating valleys, and going along a precipitous and dangerous road for 500 li or so, we come to the kingdom of Tamasthiti (Damoxitiedi).

15. Damoxitiedi (Termistat)

This country is situated between two mountains. It is an old territory of Tukhara (Duhuoluo). From east to west it extends about 1500 or 1600 li; from north to south its width is only 4 or 5 li, and in its narrowest part not more than one li. It lies upon the Amu Darya (Fuchu), which it follows along its winding course. It is broken up with ^[ii.293] hills of different heights, while sand and stones lie scattered over the surface of the soil. The wind is icy cold and blows fiercely. Though they sow the ground, it produces but a little wheat and pulse. There are few trees (‘forest trees’), but plenty of flowers and fruits. Here the shan-horse is bred. The horse, though small in size, yet easily travels a long distance. The manners of the people have no regard to propriety. The men are rough and violent; their appearance low and ignoble. They wear woolen garments. Their eyes are mostly of a blue color, and in this respect they differ from people of other countries. There are some ten sangharamas, with very few priests (‘religious followers’).

The capital of the country is called Huntuoduo. In the middle of it is a sangharama built by a former king of this country. In its construction he excavated the side of the hill and filled up the valley. The early kings of this country were not believers in Buddha, but sacrificed only to the spirits worshipped by unbelievers; but for some centuries the converting power of the True Law has been diffused. At the beginning, the son of the king of this country, who was much loved by him, fell sick of a serious disease; he employed the utmost skill of the medicine art, but it brought no benefit. Then the king went personally to the deva-temple to worship and ask for some means of recovering his child. On this the chief of the temple, speaking in the name of the spirit, said, “Your son will certainly recover; let your mind rest in peace.” The king having heard it, was greatly pleased, and returned homewards. On his way he met a shaman, his demeanor staid and remarkable. Astonished at his appearance and dress, the king asked him whence he came and whither he was going. The shaman having already reached the holy fruit (of an arhat), desired to spread the Law of Buddha, and therefore he had ^[ii.294] assumed this deportment and appearance; so replying he said, “I am a disciple of Tathagata, and am called a bhikshu.” The king, who was in great anxiety, at once asked him, “My son is grievously afflicted; I scarcely know whether he is living or dead. (Will he recover?)” The shaman said, “You might raise (from the dead) the spirits of your ancestors, hut your loved son it is difficult to deliver.” The king replied, “A spirit of heaven has assured me he will not die, and the shaman says he will die; it is difficult to know what to believe, coming from these masters of religion.” Coming to his palace, he found that his loved son was already dead. Hiding the corpse and making no funeral preparations, he again asked the priest of the deva-temple respecting him. In reply he said, “He will not die; he will certainly recover.” The king in a rage seized the priest and held him fast, and then upbraiding him he said, “You and your accomplices are monstrous cheats; you pretend to be religious, but you practice lying. My son is dead, and yet you say he will certainly recover. Such lying cannot be endured; the priest (‘master’) of the temple shall die and the building be destroyed.” On this he killed the priest and took the image and flung it into the Amu Darya. On his return, he once more met the shaman; on seeing him he was glad, and respectfully prostrated himself before him, as he gratefully said, “Hitherto I have ignorantly followed (my guide), and trod the path of false teaching. Although I have for a long time followed the windings of error, now the chance has come from this. I pray you condescend to come with me to my dwelling.” The shaman accepted the invitation and went to the palace. The funeral ceremonies being over, (the king) addressed the shaman and said, “The world of men is in confusion, birth and death flow on ceaselessly; my son was sick, and I asked whether he would remain with me or depart, and the lying spirit said he would surely re^[ii.295]cover; but the first words of indication you gave were true and not false. Therefore the system of religion you teach is to be revered. Deign to receive me, deceived as I have been, as a disciple.” He, moreover, begged the shaman to plan and measure out a sangharama; then, according to the right dimensions, he constructed this building, and from that time till now the Law of Buddha has been in a flourishing condition.

In the middle of the old sangharama is the vihara built by this arhat. In the vihara is a statue of Buddha in stone above the statue is a circular cover of gilded copper, and ornamented with gems; when men walk round the statue in worship, the cover also turns; when they stop, the cover stops. The miracle cannot be explained. According to the account given by the old people, it is said that the force of a prayer of a holy man effects the miracle. Others say there is some secret mechanism in the matter; but when looking at the solid stone walls of the hall, and inquiring from the people as to their knowledge (of such mechanism), it is difficult to arrive at any satisfaction about the matter.

Leaving this country, and traversing a great mountain northward, we arrive at the country of Shikhnan (Shiqini).

16. Shiqini (Shikhnan)

This country 36 is about 2000 li in circuit, the chief city is 5 or 6 li. Mountains and valleys follow each other in a connected succession; sand and stones lie scattered over the waste lands. Much wheat and beans are grown, but little rice. The trees are thin, flowers and fruits not abundant. The climate is icy-cold; the men are fierce and intrepid. They think nothing of murder and robbery; they are ignorant of good manners or justice, and cannot distinguish between right and wrong. They are deceived as to the happiness and misery of the future, ^[ii.296] and only fear present calamities. Their figure and appearance are poor and ignoble; their garments are made of wool or skin; their writing is the same as that of the Turks, but the spoken language is different.

Passing along a great mountain to the south of the kingdom of Tamasthiti (Damoxitiedi), we come to the country of Shambhi (Shangmi).

17. Shangmi (Shambhi)

This country is about 2500 or 2600 li in circuit. It is intersected with mountains and valleys; with hills of various heights. Every kind of grain is cultivated; beans and wheat are abundant. Grapes are plentiful. The country produces yellow arsenic. They bore into the cliffs and break the stones, and so obtain it. The mountain spirits are cruel and wicked; they frequently cause calamities to befall the kindgom.

On entering the country, sacrifice is offered up to them, after which good success attends the persons in coming and going. If no sacrifice is offered them, the wind and the hail attack the travelers. The climate is very cold; the ways of the people are quick, their disposition is honest and simple. They have no rules of propriety or justice in their behavior; their wisdom is small, and in the arts they have very little ability. Their writing is the same as that of the Kingdom of Tukhara (Duhuoluo), but the spoken language is somewhat different. Their clothes are mostly made of woolen stuff. Their king is of the race of Shakya. He greatly esteems the Law of Buddha. ^[ii.297] The people follow his example, and are all animated by a sincere faith. There are two sangharamas , with very few followers.

On the northeast of the frontier of the country, skirting the mountains and crossing the valleys, advancing along a dangerous and precipitous road, after going 700 li or so, we come to the valley of Pamir (Bomiluo). It stretches 1000 li or so east and west, and 100 li or so from north to south; in the narrowest part it is not more than 10 li. It is situated among the Snowy Mountains; on this account the climate is cold, and the winds blow constantly. The snow falls both in summer and spring-time. Night and day the wind rages violently. The soil is impregnated with salt and covered with quantities of gravel and sand. The grain which is sown does not ripen, shrubs and trees are rare; there is but a succession of desert without any inhabitants.

In the middle of the Pamir Valley is a great dragon lake ( nagahrada); from east to west it is 300 li or so, from north to south 50 li. It is situated in the midst of the great Congling Mountains, and is the central point of Jambudvipa. The land is very high; the water is pure and clear as a mirror; it cannot be fathomed; the color of the lake is a dark blue; the taste of the, water sweet and soft: in the water hide the jiaochi fish (“shark-spider”), dragons, crocodiles, tortoises; floating on its surface are ducks, wild geese, cranes, ^[ii.298] and so on; large eggs are found concealed in the wild desert wastes, or among the marshy shrubs, or on the sandy islets.

To the west of the lake there is a large stream, which, going west, reaches so far as the eastern borders of the kingdom of Tamasthiti (Damoxitiedi), and there joins the Amu Darya (Fuchu) and flows still to the west. So on this side of the lake all the streams flow westward.

On the east of the lake is a great stream, which, flowing northeast, reaches to the western frontiers of the country of Kashgar (Qusha), and there joins the Sita (Xiduo) River and flows eastward, and so all streams on the left side of the lake flow eastward.

Passing over a mountain to the south of the Pamir Valley, we find the country of Bolor (Boluluo); here is found much gold and silver; the gold is as red as fire.

On leaving the midst of this valley and going southeast, along the route there is no inhabited place (‘no men or village’). Ascending the mountains, traversing the side of precipices, encountering nothing but ice and snow, and thus going 500 li we arrive at the kingdom of Qiepantuo.

18. Qiepantuo (Khabandha)

This country is about 2000 li in circuit; the capital ^[ii.299] refits on a great rocky crag of the mountain, and is backed by the Sita River. It is about 20 li in circuit. The mountain chains run in continuous succession, the valleys and plains are very contracted. There is very little rice cultivated, but beans and corn grow in abundance. Trees grow thinly, there are only few fruits and flowers. The plateaus are soppy, the hills are waste, the towns are deserted; the manners of the people are without any rules of propriety. There are very few of the people who give themselves to study. They are naturally uncouth and impetuous, but yet they are bold and courageous. Their appearance is common and revolting; their clothes are made of woolen stuffs. Their letters are much like those of the Kashgar (Qusha) country. They know how to express themselves sincerely, and they greatly reverence the Law of Buddha. There are some ten sangharamas with about 500 followers. They study the Little Vehicle according to the School of the Sarvastivadas.

The reigning king is of an upright and honest character; he greatly honors the Three Treasures; his external ^[ii.300] manner is quiet and unassuming; he is of a vigorous mind and loves learning.

Since the establishment of the kingdom many successive ages have passed. Sometimes the people speak of themselves as deriving their name from the China-deva-gotra (Zhinatipoqudaluo). Formerly this country was a desert valley in the midst of the Congling Mountains. At this time a king of the kingdom of Persia (Bolilasi) took a wife from the Han Country. She had been met by an escort on her progress so far as this, when the roads east and west were stopped by military operations. On this they placed the king’s daughter on a solitary mountain peak, very high, and dangerous, which could only be approached by ladders up and down; moreover, they surrounded it with guards both night and day for protection. After three months the disturbances were quelled (they put down the robbers). Quiet being restored, they were about to resume their homeward journey. But now the lady was found to be pregnant. Then the minister in charge of the mission was filled with fear and he addressed his colleagues thus: “The king’s commands were that I should go to meet his bride. Our company, in expectation of a cessation of the troubles that endangered the roads, at one time encamped in the wilds; at another in the deserts; in the morning we knew not what would happen before the evening. At length the influence of our king having quieted the country, I was resuming the progress homeward when I found that the bride was pregnant. This has caused me great grief, and I know not the place of my death. We must inquire about the villain who has done this (secretly), with a view to punish him hereafter. If we talk about it and noise it abroad, we shall never get at the truth.” Then his servant, addressing the envoy, said, “Let there be no inquiry; it is a spirit that has had knowledge of her; every day at noon there was a chief-master who came from the Sun’s disc and, mounted on horseback, came to ^[ii.301] meet her.” The envoy said, “If this be so, how can I clear myself from fault? If I go back I shall certainly be put to death; if I delay here they will send to have me punished. What is the best thing to do?” He answered, “This is not so complicated a matter; who is there to make inquiries about matters or to exact punishment outside the frontiers? Put it off a few days (from morning to evening’).”

On this he built, on the top of a rocky peak, a palace with its surrounding apartments; then having erected an enclosure round the palace of some 300 paces, he located the princess there as chief. She established rules of government and enacted laws. Her time having come, she bore a son of extraordinary beauty and perfect parts. The mother directed the affairs of state; the son received his honorable title; he was able to fly through the air and control the winds and snow. He extended his power far and wide, and the renown of his laws was everywhere known. The neighboring countries and those at a distance subscribed themselves his subjects.

The king having died from age, they buried him in a stone chamber concealed with a great mountain cavern about 100 li to the southeast of this city. His body, being dried, has escaped corruption down to the present time. The form of his body is shriveled up and thin: he looks as if he were asleep. From time to time they change his clothes, and regularly place incense and flowers by his side. From that time till now/his descendants have ever recollected their origin, that their mother (or “on their mother’s side”), they were descended from the King of Han, and on their father’s side from the race of the Sun-deva, and therefore they style themselves “descendants of the Han and Sun-god.”

^[ii.302] The members of the royal family in appearance resemble the people of the Middle Country (China). They wear on their heads a square cap, and their clothes are like those of the Uyghur (Hu) people. In after-ages these people fell under the power of the barbarians, who kept their country in their power.

When Ashoka-raja was in the world he built in this palace a stupa. Afterwards, when the king changed his residence to the northeast angle of the royal precinct, he built in this old palace a sangharama for the sake of Kumaralabdha (Tongshou). The towers of this building are high (and its halls) wide. There is in it a figure of Buddha of majestic appearance. The venerable Kumaralabdha was a native of Takshasila. From his childhood he showed a rare intelligence, and in early life gave up the world. He allowed his mind to wander through the sacred texts, and let his spirit indulge itself in profound reveries. Daily he recited 32,000 words and wrote 32,000 letters. In this way he was able to surpass all his contemporaries, and to establish his renown beyond the age in which he lived. He settled the True Law, and overcame false doctrine, and distinguished himself by the brilliancy of his discussion. There was no difficulty which he could not overcome. All the men of the Five Indies came to see him, and assigned him the highest rank. He composed many tens of shastras. These were much renowned and studied by all. He was the founder of the Sautrantika (Jingbu) School.

At this time in the east was Ashvaghosha, in the south Deva, in the west Nagarjuna, in the north Kumaralabdha. These four were called the four sons that illu^[ii.303]mined the world. The king of this country, therefore, having heard of the honorable one (Kumaralabdha) and his great qualities, raised an army to attack Takshashila, and carried him off by force. He then built this sangharama.

Going southeast 300 li or so from the city, we come to a great rocky scarp in which two chambers are excavated, in each of which is an arhat plunged in complete ecstasy. They are sitting upright, and they could be moved but with difficulty. Their appearance is shriveled, but their skin and bones still survive. Though 700 years have elapsed, their hair still grows, and because of this the priests cut their hair every year and change their clothes. To the northeast of, the great crag after going 200 li or so along the mountainside and the precipices, we come to a hospice (punyasala).

In the midst of four mountains belonging to the eastern chain of the Congling Mountains there is a space comprising some hundred qing (thousand acres). In this, both during summer and winter, there fall down piles of snow; the cold winds and icy storms rage. The ground, impregnated with salt, produces no crops; there are no trees and nothing but scrubby undergrowth. Even at the time of great heat the wind and the snow continue. Scarcely have travelers entered this region when they find themselves surrounded by vapor from the snow. Merchant bands, caravans, in coming and going suffer severely in these difficult and dangerous spots.

The old story says: Formerly there was a troop of merchants, who, with their followers, amounted to 10,000 or so, with many thousand camels. They were occupied in transporting their goods and getting profit. They were assailed by wind and snow, and both men and beasts perished.

As this time there was a great arhat who belonged to the kingdom of Qiepantuo, who, taking a wide look, saw them in their danger, and being moved by pity, de^[ii.304]sired to exert his spiritual power for their rescue; but when he arrived they were already dead. On this he collected the precious objects that lay scattered about and constructed a house, and gathering in this all the wealth he could, he bought the neighboring land and built houses in the bordering cities for the accommodation of travelers, and now merchantmen and travelers enjoy the benefit of his beneficence.

Going northeast from this, descending the Congling Mountains to the eastward, after passing dangerous defiles and deep valleys, and traversing steep and dangerous roads, assailed at every step by snow and wind, after going 100 li or so, we emerge from the Congling Mountains and come to the kingdom of Och (Wusha).

19. Wusha (Och)

This kingdom is about 1,000 li in circuit; the chief town is about 10 li round. On the south it borders on the Sita River. The soil is rich and productive; it is regularly cultivated and yields abundant harvests. The trees and forests spread their foliage afar, and flowers and fruits abound. This country produces jade of different sorts in great quantities; white jade, black, and green. The climate is soft and agreeable; the winds and rain follow in their season; the manners of the people are not much in keeping with the principles of politeness. The men are naturally hard and uncivilized; they are greatly given to falsehood, and few of them have any feeling of; shame. Their language and writing are nearly the same as those of Kashgar (Qusha). Their personal appearance is low and repulsive. Their clothes are made of skins and woolen stuffs. However, they have a firm faith in the law of Buddha and greatly honor him. There are some ten sangharamas, with somewhat less than 1,000 priests. They study the Little Vehicle according to the School of the Sarvastivadas. For some centuries the royal line has. ^[ii.305] been extinct. They have no ruler of their own, but are in dependence on the country of Qiepantuo.

Two hundred li or so to the west of the city we come to a great mountain. This mountain is covered with brooding vapors, which hang like clouds above the rocks. The crags rise one above another, and seem as if about to fall where they are suspended. On the mountaintop is erected a stupa of a wonderful and mysterious character. This is the old story: Many centuries ago this mountain suddenly opened; in the middle was seen a bhikshu, with closed eyes, sitting; his body was of gigantic stature and his form was dried up; his hair descended low on his shoulders and enshrouded his face. A hunter having caught sight of him, told the king. The king in person went to see him and to pay him homage. All the men of the town came spontaneously to burn incense and offer flowers as religious tribute to him. Then the king said, “What man is.this of such great stature?” Then there was a bhikshu who said in reply, “ This man with his hair descending over his shoulders and clad in a kashaya garment is an arhat who has entered the samadhi which produces extinction of mind. Those who enter this kind of samadhi have to await a certain signal (or period); some say that if they hear the sound of the ghanta they awake; others, if they see the shining of the Sun, then this is a signal for them to arouse themselves from their ecstasy; in the absence of such signal, they rest unmoved and quiet, while the power of their ecstasy keeps their bodies from destruction. When they come from their trance after their long fast, the body ought to be well cubbed with oil and the limbs made supple with soft applications; after this the ghanta may be sounded to restore the mind plunged in samadhi.” The king said, “Let it be done,” and then he sounded the gong.

Scarcely had the sound died away, but the arhat, recognizing the signal, looking down on them from on high ^[ii.306] for a long time, at length said, “What creatures are you with forms so small and mean, clothed with brown robes?” They answered, “We are bhikshus!” He said, “And where now dwells my master, Kashyapa Tathagata?” They replied, “He has entered the great nirvana for a long time past.” Having heard this, he shut his eyes, as a man disappointed and ready to die. Then suddenly he asked again, “Has Shakya Tathagata come into the world?” “He has been born, and having guided the world spiritually, he has also entered nirvana ” Hearing this, he bowed his head, and so remained for a long time. Then rising up into the air, he exhibited spiritual transformations, and at last he was consumed by fire and his bones fell to the ground. The king having collected them, raised over them this stupa.

Going north from this country, and traversing the rocky mountains and desert plains for 500 li or so, we come to the country of Kashgar (Qusha).

20. Qusha (Kashgar)

The country of Kashgar is about 5000 li in circuit. It has much sandy and stony soil, and very little loam. It is regularly cultivated and is productive. Flowers and fruits are abundant. Its manufactures are a fine kind of twilled haircloth, and carpets of a fine texture and skilfully woven. The climate is soft and agreeable; the winds and rain regularly succeed each other. The disposition, of the men is fierce and impetuous, and they are mostly false and deceitful. They make light of decorum and politeness, and esteem learning but little. Their custom is when a child is born to compress his head with a board of wood. Their appearance is common and ignoble. They paint (mark) their ^[ii.307] bodies and around their eyelids. For their writing (written characters) they take their model from India, and although they (i.e., the forms of the letters) are somewhat mutilated, yet they are essentially the same in form. Their language and pronunciation are different from that of other countries. They have a sincere faith in the religion of Buddha, and give themselves earnestly to the practice of it. There are several hundreds of sangharamas, with some 10,000 followers; they study the Little Vehicle and belong to the Sarvastivada School. Without understanding the principles, they recite many religious chants; therefore there are many who can say throughout the Three Pitakas and the Vibhasha (Piposha).

Going from this southeast 500 li or so, passing the river Sita and crossing a great stony precipice, we come to the kingdom of Zhuojujia.

21. Zhuojujia (Yarkiang)

This kingdom is some 1000 li or so round; the capital is about 10 li in circuit. It is hemmed in by crags and mountain fastnesses. The residences are numerous. Mountains and hills succeed each other in a continuous line. Stony districts spread in every direction. This kingdom borders on two rivers; the cultivation of grain and of fruit-trees is successful, principally figs, pears, and plums. Cold and winds prevail ^[ii.308] throughout the year. The men are passionate and cruel; they are false and treacherous, and in open day practice robbery. The letters are the same as those of Qu-sa-dan-na (Khotan), but the spoken language is different. Their politeness is very scant, and their knowledge of literature and the arts equally so. They have an honest faith, however, in the Three Precious Objects of worship, and love the practice of religion. There are several tens of sangharamas, but mostly in a ruinous condition; there are some hundred followers, who study the Great Vehicle.

On the southern frontier of the country is a great mountain, with lofty defiles and peaks piled up one on the other, and covered with matted underwood and jungle. In winter and all through the year the mountain streams and torrents rush down on every side. There are niches and stone chambers in the outside; they occur in regular order between the rocks and woods. The arhats from India, displaying their spiritual power, coming from far, abide here at rest. As many arhats have here arrived at nirvana, so there are many stupas here erected. At present there are three arhats dwelling in these mountain passes in deep recesses, who have entered the samadhi of “extinction of mind.” Their bodies are withered away; their hair continues to grow, so that Shramans from time to time go to shave them. In this kingdom, the writings of the Great Vehicle are very abundant. There is no place where the law of Buddha is more flourishing than this. There is a collection here of ten myriads of verses, divided into ten parts. From the time of its introduction til now it has wonderfully spread.

Going east from this, skirting along the high mountain passes and traversing valleys, after going about 800 li, we come to the kingdom of Khotan (Qusadanna).

22. Qusadanna (Khotan)

^[ii.309] This country is about 4000 li in circuit; the greater part is nothing but sand and gravel (a sandy waste); the arable portion of the land is very contracted. What land there is, is suitable for regular cultivation, and produces abundance of fruits. The manufactures are carpets, haircloth of a fine quality, and fine-woven silken fabrics. Moreover, it produces white and green jade. The climate is soft and agreeable, but there are tornadoes which bring with them clouds of flying gravel (dust). They have a knowledge of politeness and justice. The men are naturally quiet and respectful. They love to study literature and the arts, in which they make considerable advance. The people live in easy circumstances, and are contented with their lot.

This country is renowned for its music; the men love the song and the dance. Few of them wear garments of skin (or felt) and wool; most wear taffetas and white linen. Their external behaviour is full of urbanity; their customs are properly regulated. Their written characters and their mode of forming their sentences resemble the Indian model; the forms of the letters differ somewhat; the differences, however, are slight. The spoken language also differs from that of other countries. They greatly esteem the law of Buddha. There are about a hundred sangharamas with some 5000 followers, who all study the doctrine of the Great Vehicle.

The king is extremely courageous and warlike; he greatly venerates the law of Buddha. He says that he is of the race of Vaisravana-deva (Pishamen). In old times this country was waste and desert, and without inhabitants. The Vaisravana-deva came to fix his dwelling here. The eldest son of Ashoka-raja, when dwelling in Takshashila ^[ii.310] having had his eyes put out, the King Ashoka was very angry, and sent deputies to order the chief of the tribes dwelling there to be transported to the north of the snowy mountains, and to establish themselves in the midst of a desert valley. Accordingly, the men so banished, having arrived at this western frontier (of the kingdom), put at their head a chief of their tribe and made him king. It was just at this time a son of the king of the Eastern Country (China) having been expelled from his country, was dwelling in this Eastern Country. The people who dwelt here urged him also to accept the position of king. Years and months having elapsed, and their laws not yet being settled, because each party used to meet by chance in the hunting-ground, they came to mutual recriminations, and, having questioned each other as to their family and so on, they resolved to resort to armed force. There was then one present who used remonstrances and said, “Why do you urge each other thus today? It is no good fighting on the hunting-ground; better return and train your soldiers and then return and fight.” Then each returned to his own kingdom and practiced their cavalry and encouraged their warriors for the fray. At length, being arrayed one against the other, with drums and trumpets, at dawn of the day, the Western Army (Lord) was defeated. They pursued him to the north and beheaded him. The eastern king, profiting by his victory, reunited the broken parts of his kingdom (or, “consolidated his power”), changed his capital to the Middle Land and fortified it with walls; but, because he had no (surveyed) territory, he was filled with fear lest he should be unable to complete his scheme, and so he proclaimed far and near, “Who knows how to survey a dominion?” At this time there was a heretic covered with cinders who carried on his shoulder a great calabash full of water, and, advancing to the king, said, ^[ii.311] “I understand a method (a territory),” and so he began to walk round with the water of his calabash running out, and thus completed an immense circle. After this he fled quickly and disappeared.

Following the traces of the water, the king laid the foundation of his capital city; and having retained its distinction, it is here the actual king reigns. The city, having no heights near it, cannot be easily taken by assault. From ancient times until now no one has been able to conquer it. The king having changed his capital to this spot, and built towns and settled the country, and acquired much religious merit, now had arrived at extreme old age and had no successor to the throne. Fearing lest his house should become extinct, he repaired to the temple of Vais’ravana, and prayed him to grant his desire. Forthwith the head of the image (“idol”) opened at the top, and there came forth a young child. Taking it, he returned to his palace. The whole country addressed congratulations to him, but as the child would not drink milk, he feared he would not live. He then returned to the temple and again asked (the god) for means to nourish him. The earth in front of the divinity then suddenly opened and offered an appearance like a pap. The divine child drank from it eagerly. Having reached supreme power in due course, he shed glory on his ancestors by his wisdom and courage, and extended far and wide the influence of hislaws. Forthwith he raised to the god (Vaisravana) a temple in honor of his ancestors. From that time till now the succession of kings has been in regular order, and the power has been lineally transmitted. And for this reason also the present temple of the deva is richly adorned with rare gems and worship is punctually offered in it. From the first king having been nourished from milk coming from the earth the country was called by its name (Kustana, “pap of the earth”).

About 10 li south of the capital is a large sangharama, ^[ii.312] built by a former king of the country in honor of Vairochana (Piluzhena) Arhat.

In old days, when the law of Buddha had not yet extended to this country, that arhat came from the country of Kashmir to this place. He sat down in the middle of a wood and gave himself to meditation. At this time certain persons beheld him, and, astonished at his appearance and dress, they came and told the king. The king forthwith went to see him for himself. Beholding his appearance, he asked him, saying, “What man are you, dwelling alone in this dark forest?” The arhat replied, “I am a disciple of Tathagata; I am dwelling here to practice meditation. Your majesty ought to establish religious merit by extolling the doctrine of Buddha, building a monastery, and providing a body of priests.” The king said, “What virtue has Tathagata, what spiritual power, that you should be hiding here as a bird practising his doctrine (or rules)?” He replied, “Tathagata is full of love and compassion for all that lives; he has come to guide living things throughout the three worlds; he reveals himself by birth or he hides himself; he comes and goes. Those who follow his law avoid the necessity of birth and death; all those ignorant of his doctrine are still kept in the net of worldly desire.” The king said, “Truly what you say is a matter of high importance.” Then, after deliberation, he said with a loud voice, “Let the great saint appear for my sake and show himself; having seen his appearance, then I will build a monastery, and believe in him, and advance his cause.” The arhat replied, “Let the king build the monastery, then, on account of his accomplished merit, he may gain his desire.”

The temple having been finished, there was a great assembly of priests from far and near; but as yet there vas no ghanta to call together the congregation; on ^[ii.313] which the king said, “The monastery is finished, but wkere is the appearance of Buddha?” The arhat said, “Let the king exercise true faith and the spiritual appearance will not be far off!” Suddenly in mid-air appeared a figure of Buddha descending from heaven, and gave to the king a ghanta (jianzhui), on which his faith was confirmed, and he spread abroad the doctrine of Buddha.

To the southwest of the royal city about 20 li or so is Mount Gosringa (Qushiqie); there are two peaks to this mountain, and around these peaks there are on each side a connected line of hills. In one of the valleys there has been built a sanglidrdma; in this is placed a figure of Buddha, which from time to time emits rays of glory; in this place Tathagata formerly delivered a concise digest of the law for the benefit of the devas. He prophesied also that in this place there would be founded a kingdom, and that in it the principles of the bequeathed law would be extended and the Great Vehicle be largely practiced.

In the caverns of Mount Gosringa is a great rockdwelling where there is an arhat plunged in the ecstasy called “destroying the mind”; he awaits the coming of Maitreya-buddha. During several centuries constant homage has been paid to him. During the last few years the mountaintops have fallen and obstructed the way (to the cavern). The king of the country wished to remove the fallen rocks by means of his soldiers, but they were attacked by swarms of black bees, who poisoned the men, and so to this day the gate of the cavern is blocked up.

To the southwest of the chief city about 10 li there is a monastery called Dirghabhavana (Dijiapofuna), in which is a standing figure of Buddha of Quzhi (Kuche). Originally this figure came from Quzhi, and stayed here.

^[ii.314] In old time there was a minister who was banished from this country to Quzhi; while there he paid worship only to this image, and afterwards, when he returned to his own country, his mind still was moved with reverence towards it. After midnight the figure suddenly came of itself to the place, on which the man left his home and built this monastery.

Going west from the capital 300 li or so, we come to the town of Bhagai (Boqieyi); in this town is a sitting figure of Buddha about seven feet high, and marked with all the distinguishing signs of beauty. Its appearance is imposing and dignified. On its head is a precious gem-ornament, which ever spreads abroad a brilliant light. The general tradition is to this effect—this statue formerly belonged to the country of Kashmir; by the influence of prayer (being requested), it removed itself here. In old days there was an arhat who had a disciple, a shramanera, on the point of death. He desired to have a cake of sown rice (cumibing); the arhat by his divine sight seeing there was rice of this sort in Kustana, transported himself thither by his miraculous power to procure some. The shramanera having eaten it, prayed that he might be re-born in this country, and in consequence of his previous destiny he was born there as a king’s son. When he had succeeded to the throne, he subdued all the neighboring territory, and passing the snowy mountains, he attacked Kashmir. The king of Kashmir assembled his troops with a view to resist the invaders. On this the arhat warned the king against the use of force, and said, “I am able to restrain him.”

Then going to meet the king of Kustana (Qusadanna), began to recite choice selections of scripture (the Law).

The king at first, having no faith, determined to go on with his military preparations. On this the arhat, taking the robes which were worn by the king in his former con^[ii.315]dition as a shramanera, showed them to him. Having seen them, the king reached to the knowledge of his previous lives, and he went to the king of Kashmir and made profession of his joy and attachment. He then dispersed his troops and returned. The image which he had honored when a shami he now respectfully took in front of the army, and came to this kingdom at his request. But having arrived at this spot, he could not get further, and so built this sangharama; and calling the priests together, he gave his jewelled headdress for the image, and this is the one now belonging to the figure, the gift of the former king.

To the west of the capital city 150 or 160 li, in the midst of the straight road across a great sandy desert, there are a succession of small hills, formed by the burrowing of rats. I heard the following as the common story: “In this desert there are rats as big as hedgehogs, their hair of a gold and silver color. There is a head rat to the company. Every day he comes out of his hole and walks about; when he has finished the other rats follow him. In old days a general of the Xiong-nu came to ravage the border of this country with several tens of myriads of followers. When he had arrived thus far at the rat-mounds, he encamped his soldiers. Then the king of Kustana, who commanded only some few myriads of men, feared that his force was not sufficient to take the offensive. He knew of the wonderful character of these desert rats, and that he had not yet made any religious offering to them; but now he was at a loss where to look for succor. His ministers, too, were all in alarm, and could think of no expedient. At last he determined to offer a religious offering to the rats and request their aid, if by these means his army might be strengthened a little. That night the king of Kustana in a dream saw a great ^[ii.316] rat, who said to him, “I wish respectfully to assist yon. Tomorrow morning put your troops in movement; attack the enemy, and you will conquer.”

The king of Kustana, recognizing the miraculous character of this intervention, forthwith arrayed his cavalry and ordered his captains to set out before dawn, and at their head, after a rapid march, he fell unexpectedly on the enemy. The Xiongnu, hearing their approach, were overcome by fear. They hastened to harness their horses and equip their chariots, “but they found that the leather of their armour, and their horses’ gear, and their bow strings, and all the fastenings of their clothes, had been gnawed by the rats. And now their enemies had arrived, and they were taken in disorder. Thereupon their chief was killed and the principal soldiers made prisoners. The Xiongnu were terrified on perceiving a divine interposition on behalf of their enemies. The king of Kustana, in gratitude to the rats, built a temple and offered sacrifices; and ever since they have continued to receive homage and reverence, and they have offered to them rare and precious things. Hence, from the highest to the lowest of the people, they pay these rats constant reverence and seek to propitiate them by sacrifices. On passing the mounds they descend from their chariots and pay their respects as they pass on, praying for success as they worship. Others offer clothes, and bows, and arrows; others scents, and flowers, and costly meats. Most of those who practice these religious rites obtain their wishes; but if they neglect them, then misfortune is sure to occur.

To the west of the royal city 5 or 6 li is a monastery called Suomoruo (Samajna). In the middle of it is a stupa about 100 feet high, which exhibits many miraculous indications (signs). Formerly there was an arhat, who, coming from a distance, took up his abode in this forest, and by his spiritual power shed abroad a miraculous light. Then the king at night-time, being in a tower of ^[ii.317] his palace, saw at a distance, in the middle of the wood, brilliant light shining. Asking a number of persons in succession what their opinion was, they all said, “There is a shramana who has come from far, and is sitting alone in this wood. By the exercise of his supernatural power he spreads abroad this light.” The king then ordered his chariot to be equipped, and went in person to the spot. Having seen the illustrious sage, his heart was filled with reverence, and after having offered him every respect, he invited him to come to the palace. The shramana said, “Living things have their place, and the mind has its place. For me the sombre woods and the desert marshes have attraction. The storeyed halls of a palace and its extensive courts are not suitable for my tastes.”

The king hearing this felt redoubled reverence for him, and paid him increased respect. He constructed for him a sangharama and raised a stupa. The shramana, having been invited to do so, took up his abode there.

The king having procured some hundred particles of relics, was filled with joy and thought with himself, “ These relics have come late; if they had come before, I could have placed them under this stupa, and then what a miracle of merit it would have been.” Going then to the sangharama, he asked the shramana. The arhat said, ‘‘Let not the king be distressed. In order to place them in their proper place you ought to prepare a gold, silver, copper, iron, and stone receptacle, and place them one in the other, in order to contain the relics. The king then gave orders to workmen to do this, and it was finished in a day. Then carrying the relics on an ornamented car (or, stand), they brought them to the sangharama. At this time the king, at the head of a hundred officers, left the palace (to witness the procession of the relics), while the beholders amounted to several myriads. Then the arhat with his right hand raised the stupa, and holding it in his palms, he addressed the king and said, “You can now conceal the relics underneath.” Accordingly he dug ^[ii.318] a place for the chest, and all being done, the arhat lowered the stupa without hurt or inconvenience.

The beholders, exulting at the miracle, placed their faith in Buddha, and felt increased reverence for his law. Then the king, addressing his ministers, said, “I have heard it said that the power of Buddha is difficult to calculate, and his spiritual abilities difficult to measure. At one time he divided his body into ten million parts; at other times he appeared among devas and men, holding the world in the palm of his hand without disturbing any one, explaining the law and its character in ordinary words, so that men and others, according to their kind, understood it, exhibiting the nature of the law in one uniform way, drawing all men (things) to a knowledge of it according to their minds. Thus his spiritual power was peculiarly his own; his wisdom was beyond the power of words to describe. His spirit has passed away, but his teaching remains. Those who are nourished by the sweetness of his doctrine and partake of his instruction; who follow his directions and aim at his spiritual enlightenment, how great their happiness, how deep their insight. You hundred officers ought to honor and respect Buddha; the mysteries of his law will then become clear to you.”

To the southeast of the royal city 5 or 6 li is a monastery called Ma-she, which was founded by a queen of a former ruler of the country. In old time this country knew nothing about mulberry trees or silkworms. Hearing that the Eastern Country had them, they sent an embassy to seek for them. At this time the prince of the Eastern Kingdom kept the secret and would not give the possession of it to any. He kept guard over his territory and would not permit either the seeds of the mulberry or the silkworms’ eggs to be carried off.

The king of Kustana sent off to seek a marriage union ^[ii.319] with a princess of the Eastern Kingdom (China), in token of his allegiance and submission. The king being well affected to the neighboring states acceded to his wish. Then the king of Kustana dispatched a messenger to escort the royal princess and gave the following direction: “Speak thus to the eastern princess—our country has neither silk or silken stuffs. You had better bring with you some mulberry seeds and silkworms, then you can make robes for yourself.”

The princess, hearing these words, secretly procured the seed of the mulberry and silkworms’ eggs and concealed them in her headdress. Having arrived at the barrier, the guard searched everywhere, but he did not dare to remove the princess’s headdress. Arriving then in the kingdom of Kustana, they stopped on the site afterwards occupied by the Ma-she sangharama; thence they conducted her in great pomp to the royal palace. Here then they left the silkworms and mulberry seeds.

In the springtime they set the seeds, and when the time for the silkworms had come they gathered leaves for their food; but from their first arrival it was necessary to feed them on different kinds of leaves, but afterwards the mulberry trees began to nourish. Then the queen wrote on a stone the following decree, “It is not permitted to kill the silkworm! After the butterfly has gone, then the silk may be twined off (the cocoon). Whoever offends against this rule may he be deprived of divine protection.” Then she founded this satighdrdma on the spot where the first silkworms were bred; and there are about here many old mulberry tree trunks which they say are the remains of the old trees first planted. From old time till now this kingdom has possessed silkworms, which nobody is allowed to kill, with a view to take away the silk stealthily. Those who do so are not allowed to rear the worms for a succession of years.

To the southeast of the capital aboul; 200 li or so is a ^[ii.320] great river flowing northwest. The people take advantage of it to irrigate their lands. After a time this stream ceased to flow. The king, greatly astonished at the strange event, ordered his carriage to be equipped and went to an arhat and asked him, “The waters of the great river, which have been so beneficial to man, have suddenly ceased. Is not my rule a just one? Are not my benefits (virtues) widely distributed through the world? If it be not so, what is my fault, or why is this calamity permitted?”

The arhat said, “Your majesty governs his kingdom well, and the influence of your rule is for the well-being and peace of your people. The arrest in the flow of the river is on account of the dragon dwelling therein. You should offer sacrifices and address your prayers to him; you will then recover your former benefits (from the river).”

Then the king returned and offered sacrifice to the river dragon. Suddenly a woman emerged from the stream, and advancing said to him, “My lord is just dead, and there is no one to issue orders; and this is the reason why the current of the stream is arrested and the husbandmen have lost their usual profits. If your majesty will choose from your kingdom a minister of state of noble family and give him to me as a husband, then he may order the stream to flow as before.”

The king said, “I will attend with respect to your request and meet your wishes.” The naga (woman) was rejoiced (to have obtained the promise of) a great minister of the country (as a husband).

The king having returned, addressed his dependents thus, “A great minister is the stronghold of the state. The pursuit of agriculture is the secret of men’s life. Without a strong support, then, there is ruin to the state; ^[ii.321] without food there is death to the people. In the presence of such calamities what is to be done?” A great minister, leaving his seat, prostrated himself and said, “For a long time I have led a useless life, and held an important post without profit to others. Although I have desired to benefit my country, no occasion has offered. Now, then, I pray you choose me, and I will do my best to meet your wishes. In view of the good of the entire people what is the life of one minister? A minister is the support of the country; the people the substance. I beg your majesty not to hesitate. I only ask that, for the purpose of securing merit, I may found a monastery.”

The king having consented, the tiling was done forthwith, and his request complied with. On this the minister asked to be allowed to enter at once the dragon-palace. Then all the chief men of the kingdom made a feast, with music and rejoicing, while the minister, clad in white garments and riding a white horse, took leave of the king and respectfully parted with the people of the country. So, pressing on his horse, he entered the river; advancing in the stream, he sank not, till at length, when in the middle of it, he whipped the stream with his lash, and forthwith the water opened in the midst, and he disappeared. A short time afterwards the white horse came up and floated on the water, carrying on his back a great sandalwood drum, in which was a letter, the contents of which were briefly these: “Your majesty has not made the least error in selecting me for this office in connection with the spirit (naga). May you enjoy much happiness and your kingdom be prosperous! Your minister sends you this drum to suspend at the southeast of the city; if an enemy approaches, it will sound first of all.”

The river began then to flow, and down to the present time has caused continued advantage to the people. ^[ii.322] Many years and months have elapsed since then, and the place where the dragon-drum was hung has long since disappeared, but the ruined monastery by the side of the drum-lake still remains, but it has no priests and is deserted.

Three hundred li or so to the east of the royal city is a great desert marsh, upwards of several thousands acres in extent, without any verdure whatever. Its surface is a reddish-black. The old people explain the matter thus: This is the place where an army was defeated. In old days an army of the Eastern Country numbering a hundred myriads of men invaded the western kingdom. The king of Kustana, on his side, equipped a body of cavalry to the number of ten myriads, and advanced to the east to offer the enemy battle. Coming to this spot, an engagement took place. The troops of the west being defeated, they were cut to pieces and their king was taken prisoner and all their officers killed without leaving one to escape. The ground was dyed with blood, and the traces of it still remain (in the color of the earth).

After going east 30 li or so from the field of battle we come to the town of Pima (Pi-mo). Here there is a figure of Buddha in a standing position made of sandalwood. The figure is about twenty feet high. It works many miracles and reflects constantly a bright light. Those who have any disease, according to the part affected, cover the corresponding place on the statue with gold-leaf, and forthwith they are healed. People who address prayers to it with a sincere heart mostly obtain their wishes. This is what the natives say: This image in old days when Buddha was alive was made by Udayana (Wu-tuo-yan-na), king of Kaushambi (Jiao-shang-mi). When Buddha left the world, it mounted of-its own accord into the air and came to the north of this kingdom, to the town of He-lao-luo-jia. The men of this city were rich and prosperous, ^[ii.323] and deeply attached to heretical teaching, with no respect for any other form of religion. From the time the image came there it showed its divine character, but no one paid it respect.

Afterwards there was an arhat who bowed down and saluted the image; the people of the country were alarmed at his strange appearance and dress, and they hastened to tell the king. The king issued a decree that the stranger should be covered over with sand and earth. At this time the arhat’s body being covered with sand, he sought in vain for food as nourishment. There was a man whose heart was indignant at such treatment; he had himself always respected the image and honored it with worship, and now seeing the arhat in this condition, he secretly gave him food. The arhat being on the point of departure, addressed this man and said, “Seven days hence there will be a rain of sand and earth which will fill this city full, and there will in a brief space be none left alive. You ought to take measures for escape in knowledge of this. They have covered me with earth, and this is the consequence to them.” Having said this he departed, disappearing in a moment.

The man, entering the city, told the tidings to his relatives, but they did nothing but mock at him. The second day a great wind suddenly arose, which carried before it all the dirty soil, while there fell various precious substances. Then the men continued to revile the man who had told them (about the sand and earth).

But this man, knowing in his heart what must certainly happen, excavated for himself an underground passage leading outside the city, and there lay concealed. On the seventh day, in the evening, just after the division of the ^[ii.324] night, it rained sand and earth, and filled the city. This man escaped through his tunnel and went to the east, and, arriving in this country, he took his abode in Pima. Scarcely had the man arrived when the statue also appeared there. He forthwith paid it worship in this place and dared not go farther (change his abode). According to the old account it is said, “When the law of Shakya is extinct then this image will enter the dragon-palace.”

The town of He-lao-luo-jia is now a great sand mound. The kings of the neighboring countries and persons in power from distant spots have many times wished to excavate the mound and take away the precious things buried there; but as soon as they have arrived at the borders of the place, a furious wind has sprung up, dark clouds have gathered together from the four quarters of heaven, and they have become lost to find their way.

To the east of the valley of Pima we enter a sandy desert, and after going 200 li or so, we come to the town of Ni-rang. This city is about 3 or 4 li in circuit; it stands in a great marsh; the soil of the marsh is warm and soft, so that it is difficult to walk on it. It is covered with rushes and tangled herbage, and there are no roads or pathways; there is only the path that leads to the city, through which one can pass with difficulty, so that every one coming and going must pass by this town. The king of Kustana makes this the guard of his eastern frontier.

Going east from this, we enter a great drifting sand desert. These sands extend like a drifting flood for a great distance, piled up or scattered according to the wind. There is no trace left behind by travellers, and ^[ii.325] oftentimes the way is lost, and so they wander hither and thither quite bewildered, without any guide or direction. So travellers pile up the bones of animals as beacons. There is neither water nor herbage to be found, and hot winds frequently blow. When these winds rise, then both men and beasts become confused and forgetful, and then they remain perfectly disabled (side). At times sad and plaintive notes are heard and piteous cries, so that between the sights and sounds of this desert men get confused and know not whither they go. Hence there are so many who perish in the journey. But it is all the work of demons and evil spirits.

Going on 400 li or so, we arrive at the old kingdom of Tukhara (Duhuoluo). This country has long been deserted and wild. All the towns are ruined and uninhabited.

From this going east 600 li or so, we come to the ancient kingdom of Zhemotuona, which is the same as the country called Jumo (zzz). The city walls still stand loftily, but the inhabitants are dispersed and scattered.

From this going northeast a thousand li or so, we come to the old country of Navapa (Nafubo), which is the same as LouIan. We need not speak of the mountains and valleys arid soil of this neighboring country. The habits of the people are wild and unpolished, their manners not uniform; their preferences and dislikes are not always the same. There are some things difficult to verify to the utmost, and it is not always easy to recollect all that has occurred.

^[ii.326] But the traveler has written a brief summary of all he witnessed or heard. All were desirous to be instructed, and wherever he went his virtuous conduct drew the admiration of those who beheld it. And why not? In the case of one who had gone alone and afoot from the Uigur Country (Weiwuer), and had completed such a mission by stages of myriads of li!